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'REEMAN'S HISTORICAL COURSE FOR SCHOOLS. 



HISTORY 



OF 



GERMANY 



BY 



JAMES SIME, M.A, 



EDITED BY 

Edward A. Freeman, D. C. L. 

JEditiort adapted for Ajncrican Readers 




nr- 







NEW YORK 

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 

1874 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 

HENRY HOLT, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



John F. Trow & Son, Printers, 
205-213 East i2TH St., Nkw York. 



PREFACE. 



It is right for me to say that this volume of the series 
has been carefully revised by Mr. A. W. Ward, than 
whom England can supply no one better fitted to deal 
with matters of German History of all dates. Mr. Ward 
must be understood as guaranteeing only the general 
accuracy of the narrative. In other respects the volume 
falls imder the same rules as its fellows. As I have 
already said in the Preface to the History of England, 
this volume, like the others, is strictly the work of its 
own author, subject only to the requirement of a general 
agreement in form and treatment with the other volumes 
of the series. 

EDWARD A. FREEMAN. 



SOMERLEAZE, WELLS, 

February iithj i8j^ 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER L 

»AG1I 

ANCIENT GERMANY • ^ ^ 9 • • • I 

CHAPTER IL 

THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS • • II 

CHAPTER III. i^-^ 

THE FRANKS 16 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE, AND DUKES OF THE 

FRANKS 27 

CHAPTER V. 

CHARLES THE GREAT 32 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE LATER KARLINGS 37 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE SAXON EMPERORS • • 43 

CHAPTER VIII. 
THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS * .' . 5^ 



VIII CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER IX. 

PAG8 

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS 72 

CHAPTER X. 

SOVEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES 94 

CHAPTER XL 

THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS I04 

CHAPTER Xn. 

EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA ..... II3 
CHAPTER XIIL 

CHARLES V. — THE REFORMATION 1 28 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR I46 

CHAPTER XV. 
WARS WITH FRANCE 1 62 

CHAPTER XVI. . 
FREDERICK THE GREAT ,.172 

CHAPTER XVII. 

THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND OF THE KINGDOM 

OF GERMANY I93 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE 204 

CHAPTER XIX. 

REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS ......... 223 

CHAPTER XX. 
RECENT EVENTS • • • . 243 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



B.C. 

Caesar defeats Ariovistus ••• 58 

Drusus in Germany • • • 1 2-9 

A.D. 

Defeat of Varus ...•••••••• 9 

Arminius and Germanicus • • • 14-16 

The Marcomannic War 167-180 

Confederations of tribes formed ...... 200-300 

Chlodwig 482-511 

Battle of Testri 687 

Charles Martel defeats the Arabs ..... 731 

Winfrith appointed to the See of Mainz . . . 745 

Pippin the Short crowned King 753 

Charles the Great 768-814 

Charles is crowned Emperor 800 

Lewis the Pious 814-840 

Treaty of Verdun 843 

The later Karlings 843-911 

Conrad I 911-918 

The Saxon Emperors 919-1024 

Henry 1 919-93^ 

Henry I. defeats the Hungarians ..... 933 

Otto I '\ . 936-973 

Otto I. defeats the Hungarians 955 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 



A.D. 

Otto I. is crowned Emperor • 962 

Otto II. and Otto III 973-1002 

Henry II •••••••• 1003-1024 

The Franconian Emperors 1 024-1 125 

Conrad II 1024-1039 

Conrad 11. is crowned King of Burgundy . . 1032 

Henry III 1039-1056 

General Peace proclaimed 1043 

Henry IV. 1056-1106 

Henry IV. at Canossa ......... 1077 

Henry V 1106-1125 

The Concordat of Worms . 1122 

Lothar of Saxony 1125-1137 

The Hohenstaufen Emperors . ...... 1 137-1254 

Conrad III 1137-1152 

Frederick Barbarossa . . 11 53-1 190 

Humiliation of Henry the Lion 1 1 80 

Henry VI 1190-1197 

Kings Philip and Otto ,. . . 1197-1215 

Frederick II , . . 1215-1250 

The Teutonic Order conquers Prussia .... 1230- 1260 

Conrad IV. and William of Holland . . . . 1250-1256 

The Interregnum 1 256-1 273 

Rudolf of Habsburg 1273-1291 

King Adolf 1292-1298 

Albert of Austria 1298- 1308 

Henry VII 1308-1313 

Lewis IV 1314-1347 

Frederick the Fair 13 14- 1330 

Battle of Morgarten Pass 131 5 

The First Electoral League 1338 

The Luxemburg Emperors 1347- 1437 

Charles IV 1347-1378 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, XI 

A.D. 

The Golden Bull • . . 1356 

Wenceslaus 1378-1400 

Battle of Sempach 1386 

Rupert of the Palatinate • 1400- 14 10 

Sigmund 1410-1437 

The Council of Constanz 1414-1418 

John Huss burned 141 5 

Frederick of Hohenzollern receives the Mark of 

Brandenburg . • . • 141 5 

The Council of Basel 1431-1443 

Albert II 1438-1439 

Frederick III 1440-1493 

Peace of Thorn 1466 

The Archduke Maximilian marries Mary of 

Burgundy 1477 

Maximihan 1 1493-15 19 

Perpetual Public Peace proclaimed 1495 

The Imperial Chamber established 1495 

Maximilian I. takes the title of ^' Emperor Elect" 1 508 

Germany divided into Circles 1 5 1 2 

Charles V 1520- '556 

Beginning of the Preformation 15 17 

Luther before the Diet of Worms ..... 1521 

Albert of Brandenburg becomes Duke of Prussia 1525 
The Archduke Ferdinand becomes King of 

Bohemia and Hungary 1526 

The Augsburg Confession 1 530 

Religious Peace of Niirnberg 1532 

The Schmalkaldic War 1 5ZJ.6 

Battle of Miihlberg 1547 

The Interim 1548 

The Elector Maurice marches against Charles V. .1552 

Henry II. of France seizes Metz, Verdun, and Toul 1 552 



XII CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A.D. 

Religious Peace of Augsburg 1555 

Abdication of Charles V. .....••. 1556 

Ferdinand 1 1556-1564 

Maximilian II 1564- 1576 

Rudolf II 1576-1612 

The Letter of Majesty 1609 

The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Duke of 

Prussia 1611 

Matthias 1612-1619 

Beginning of the Thirty Years' War .... 161 8 

The Winter King 1619 

Defeat of the Bohemians . 1620 

The Danish War 1624-1629 

Wallenstein raises an army . . . • . • . 1626 

Gustavus Adolphus in Germany > 1630- 16 32 

Battle of Liitzen 1632 

Murder of Wallenstein 1634 

Ferdinand III 1637-1657 

Peace of Westphalia 1648 

Leopold I 1658-1705 

Treaty of Welau ■ 1657 

Battle of Fehrbellin 1675 

Peace of Nimwegen 1679 

Strassburg seized by Lewis XIV 1681 

The Turks besiege Vienna 1683 

Peace of Ryswick J 697 

Frederick I., King of Prussia 1701-1713 

The War of the Spanish Succession .... 1701-1714 

Battle of Blenheim 1 704 

Joseph 1 1705-1711 

Charles VI 1711-1740 

Peace of Rastatt 17 14 

Peace of Baden 1714 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABJ.E, xiil 

A.D. 

Frederick William L of Prussia 17 14- 1740 

Maria Theresa , 1740- 1780 

Frederick II. of Prussia 1740-1786 

The First Silesian War 1740- 1742 

Charles VII 1742-1745 

The Second Silesian War 1744- 1745 

Francis 1 1745-1765 

The Seven Years' War. 17 56- 1763 

Treaty of Hubertusburg 1763 

Joseph I L • . . . 1765-1790 

The First Partition of Poland 1773 

League formed by Frederick I L 1785 

Frederick William I L of Prussia ..... 17 86- 1797 

Leopold II 1790-1792 

First War of the Revolution ....... 1792 

Francis II 1792-1806 

The Second Partition of Polaud 1793 

The Third Partition of Poland 1795 

Peace of Basel 1795 

Peace of Campo Formio 1797 

Frederick William III, of Prussia 1797-1840 

Congress. at Rastatt 1798 

War with France 1799 

Battle of Hohenlinden . 1800 

Peace of Luneville 1801 

Buonaparte seizes Hanover 1803 

Battle of AusterLitz 1 805 

Peace of Pressburg . . . 1805 

The Confederation of the Rhine 1806 

Francis II. resigns the Imperial Crov/n . . . 1806 

Battle of Jena 1806 

Peace of Tilsit . • 1807 

Battle of Wagram 1809 



XIV CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 



Peace of Schonbrunn .- . . . 

Prussia and Russia declare war against France 

Austria and Sweden join the Allies 

Battle of the Katzbach 

Battle of Leipzig 

First Peace of Paris . • . 

The Congress of Vienna 

Battle of Waterloo 

Second Peace of Paris 

The German Confederation 

A Customs Union proposed ....... 

Death of Francis I. of Austria 

Ferdinand I. of Austria 1^35- 

Frederick William IV. of Prussia 1840- 

Popular risings in Vienna and Berlin . . ' . . 
The National Assembly in Frankfurt .... 

War with Denmark 1848- 

The Imperial title offered to Frederick William IV. 
Constitutional government set up in Prussia 
The Frankfurt Diet restored ....... 

William I. of Prussia ...... v . . 

War with Denmark . 

Alliance between Prussia and Italy 

Battle of Koniggratz 

Peace of Prague 

The North Cerman Confederation 

Customs Parliament meets in Berlin .... 
France declares war against Prussia .... 

Battle of Sedan 

Surrender of Metz 

William I. of Prussia declared Emperor in Germany 

Surrender of Paris 

Peace of Frankfurt •••••••••• 



HISTORY OF GERMANY. 



CHAPTER L 

ANCIENT GERMANY. 

G('Ogj'ap/iical character of Germany ( i ) — centf-al position ; relations 
of the Gerjjians to their neighbours (2) — the words *' Deutsch " 
or ^''DuCch^^'' and ^* German^^ (3) — High and Low Dutch (4)— 
the country in the time of Tacitus (5) — ancient German Tribes 
(.6) — the Jngaezvnes, Istaevones^ and Hermiftones ('j)^-char- 
acter of the people (8) — Nobles, Freemen, Slaves, and Liti (9) — 
the Wergeld (10) — Marriage ; position of the wife; authority of 
the father; uncles; quarrels of free77ten adopted by relatives {11) — 
Villages; the laitd ; Hundreds {12) — Chiefs ; the Comitatus (13) 
— meetings of the Village, the Hundred, and the Tribe (14)— 
all freemen armed ; their armour; the Herzog ; mode of attack 
(15) — the German religion (16). 

I. Geographical character of Germany. — Germany, or 
Dciitschlaiid^ occupies a large part of central Europe. 
Speaking roughly, it now reaches from the Alps to the 
Baltic and the North Sea^ and from the valleys of the 
Rhine and the Maes to the Daftube as far as the^ March 
and the Mtcr, and to the Prosna and the Lower Nieinen, 
The country is mountainous in the south, hilly in the 
centre, and flat in the north, where it forms part of the 
great plain which takes in the whole of north-eastern 



2 ANCIENT GERMANY. [chap. 

Europe. The western part of this plain takes in the 
country between the Teiitoburg Wood and the North Sea. 
As it passes eastwards it widens till it reaches from the 
Erz and Rieseii mountains to the Baltic. A part of South 
Germany slopes towards the east, and is watered by the 
Danube J but the general slope of the country is towards 
the north. Among the rivers flowing northwards are the 
Rhine^ the Eins^ the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the 
Visttila. 

2. Central position of Germany.— Germany has varied 
very much in extent at different times. This is due partly 
to the fact that it has no clearly-marked natural boundaries 
on the east and west, but chiefly to the peculiarity of its 
position. It is the central country of Europe. Being sur- 
rounded by most of the leading nations of the Continent, the 
Germans have been involved, more than any other people, 
in the general history of Europe. Of all their neighbours, 
the Scandinavians are most nearly allied to the Germans. 
Both are branches of the Teutonic race. But the Germans 
are also connected, although not so closely, with the other 
surrounding peoples. All, if we except the Magyars or 
Hungarians, who are Turanians, belong to the great A?yan 
family. 

3. Names of the people. — The Germans call themselves 
Deutschen. We formerly used the word Dutch in the same 
wide sense, but now usually confine it to the people of 
Holland. Deutsch or Dutch is the modern form of Theotisc 
(Theod, people), which first came into use in the ninth 
century. The word German is probably of Celtic origin. 
It is believed to have been first applied to a particular tribe, 
and then to the race to which the tribe belonged. 

4. High and Low Dutch. — The Germans or Dutch are 
divided into two great [ r mps, the High and the Low. The 
Low Dutch live by the mouths of the rivers flowing into 



I.] GERMAN TRIBES.- 3 

the North Sea, the High Dutch in the inland and moun- 
tainous parts of Germany. They are branches of the same 
people ; but they differ a good deal in character and cus- 
toms, and, above all, in language. On the Continent the 
only Low- Dutch language which remains the organ of an 
important living literature is spoken in Holland, The 
educated classes of the country, or group of countries, 
which we now call Germany, speak and write High- 
Dutch. 

5. Ancient Germany. — Our chief authority for the con- 
dition of ancient Germany is the ''' Ge7'7nama^- of Tacitus^ 
written in the year 98 A.D. At that time the greater 
part of the country was covered by forests, in which were 
bears, wolves, buffaloes, elks, and other wild animals. The 
climate was damp and foggy ; and in winter the cold seems 
to have been keener, and to have lasted longer than at 
present. The soil was in many places marshy ; but much 
of it was very fertile. There were many flocks and herds, 
generally of a small breed. 

6. German Tribes. — The ancient Germans were divided 
into many different tribes. These sometimes united among 
themselves for purposes of attack or defence ; but they were 
politically independent, each being separated from the 
others by tolerably well-marked boundaries. On the right 
bank of the Rhine, beginning with the country now called 
Hessen and passing northwards, there were, besides various 
others, the Chatti^ the Tencteri and Usipetes^ the Sicambri., 
the iMaj'si, and the B7'iicteri. The Frisians., Chaiici^ and 
Saxons occupied the coasts from the Rhine to the Elbe. 
The territory of the Chei'nsci^ one of the bravest of German 
tribes, took in the Hai'z mountains and the country around 
as far as the A lie}'., the Wese?\ the Won'a^ the Elbe., and 
the Saal. The country from, the Danube and the Middle 
Rhine northwards to the Baltic was held by tribes 



4 ANCIENT GERMANY. [chap. 

connected closely enough to be known by the common 
name of the Suevi, First among the Suevi were the Sein- 
nones^ stretching from the southern part of what is now* 
Brandenburg to the Riesen moimtams. The Lons'obardi. 
or, as they were afterwards called, the Lombards^ Avere 
settled on the banks of the Lower Elbe. The Marcomanni 
were neighbours of the Chatti, between the Rhine^ the 
Main^ and the Danube ; and further to the south-east were 
the Qiiadi. There were other Suevic tribes ; but it is 
these with whom histoiy has most to do. It was long 
believed that the Goths were the original stock from which 
all Germans had sprung ; but they held to other Germans 
merely the relation of sister tribes, and their language is 
more nearly akin to the Low than to the High German. 
They occupied the banks of the Lower Vistula. The 
Vandals^ B7i7'gU7idia7is^ dJid Rugii^ all kindred tribes, were 
scattered to the west of the Vistula, along the shores of 
the Baltic. The Gothic tribes soon passed altogether out 
of German history, and had probably begun even in 
Tacitus' time to separate from their kinsmen. It must not 
be forgotten that at an early period various German tribes 
crossed the Rhine in search of new settlements. At the 
time of C. Julins Ccesar a large part of the left bank was 
held by Germans, among whom the Ubii w^ere distinguished. 
The Batavians^ who are said to have sprung from the 
Chatti, held the island formed by the two branches of the 
Lower Rhine. 

7. Groups of Tribes. — These tribes did not call them- 
selves by any common name ; but, according to Tacitus, 
three great groups were recognised — the Ingaevo7ies^ the 
Istaevo7ies^ and the Hey77ii7io7ies. The first took in all the 
tribes on the coasts of the North Sea, the second those 
holding the Rhine country, and the third those in the 
centre of Germany. These groups were believed to have 



I.] CLASSES OF men: 5 

sprung from the three sons of Manims^ the first man, the 
son of the god TJutisto. The division had no poHtical 
importance ; but it had probably some real meaning, for it 
reappears in another form in later history. 

8. Character of the people. — The Germans were gener- 
ally tall and strong. They could be fierce and cruel ; but 
they were brave, truthful, simple in their manners, and 
hospitable. They celebrated in songs the great deeds 
of their forefathers, and were usually ready to die rather 
than give up freedom. Although an agricultural people, 
the occupations they most delighted in were war and 
hunting. Their chief faults were indolence, drunkenness, 
and excessive gambling. They left the tilling of the 
fields and all other peaceful work as much as possible to 
women and to men incapable of bearing arms. 

9. Classes of men. — The ancient Germans, like other 
Ar}'an peoples, were divided into two great classes, the 
7iobles^ and the conunon freemen. The former were the 
Eo7'ls, the latter the Ceorls of the ancient English. The 
nobles were usually richer than the freemen, but their 
position did not altogether depend on their wealth. What 
their special rights and privileges were, we do not know ; 
but they were held in high esteem, and took a foremost 
place in public life. The freem.en formed the great body 
of the people. Each was an independent member of the 
community, and enjoyed equal rights with his fellows. Both 
freemen and nobles had slaves. This class consisted for the 
most part of prisoners of war and their offspring, and of 
those condemned to slavery on account of some crime. They 
were usually well treated ; but they were the absolute pro- 
perty of their masters, and had no redress against injustice. 
They were not allowed, under any circumstances, to bear 
arms. Between the freemen and the slaves was a peculiar 
class, consisting partly of freedmen, and called Liti, 



6 ANCIENT GERMANY, [chaf. 

The Liti were in no sense any one's, property, and they 
had certain rights which they could enforce ; but they 
had no share in the political life of the community. They 
could not possess land. They could only hold it of some 
master, with whom they were obliged to share the produce. 
They were thus neither freemen nor slaves, but a class apart. 

10. The Wergeld. — If a noble, a freeman, or one of the 
Liti was killed, the murderer was not put to death. He had 
to pay a fine, which was in later times called the Wergeld. 
The amount of the Wergeld varied amongst different tribes ; 
but the Wei-geld of a noble was always greater than that 
of a freeman, as a freeman's was greater than that of one 
of the Liti. 

11. The Familjr. — The ancient Germans did not marry 
till the'r physical and mental powers were fully developed. 
The bridegroom did not exactly purchase the bride ; but 
on the day of their marriage he brought her a valu- 
able gift, which she kept as her own property. The wife 
was subject to the husband ; but her position was not a 
degraded one. She was her husband's companion and 
friend, and often went with him on distant warlike 
expeditions. She was expected to know the use of 
arms, and was usually brave and virtuous. The clan 
was not, in the time of Tacitus, the foundation of society ; 
but family relations were of great importance. The 
father had supreme authority over his children. He 
had even the power, in extreme cases, of putting them 
to death. Uncles, especially on the mother's side, were 
looked up to with deep respect. When a freeman died, 
his children were protected by their relatives, until they 
were able to defend themselves. A freeman's quarrels 
were always taken up by his relatives ; and if he was 
killed, it was their duty to see that the Wergeld, which was 
divided amongst the family, was paid. 



I.] CHIEFS. THE COMITATUS. 7 

12. Villages and Hundreds. — There were no cities 
in ancient Germany. In some parts of the country 
every freeman lived apart with his family on his own 
land ; but the great majority lived in villages. These 
villages were made up of a number of huts, each hut stand- 
ing apart from the rest, surrounded by a piece of ground 
The land around a village originally belonged to the 
community, and much of it remained common property ; 
but from an early period grants of land had been made 
to individuals, and the nimiber of those who held land 
as their private property always tended to increase. An 
undefined number of villages formed what was called 
a Hundred. Whether the Gau w^as a name for the entire 
land of a tribe, or was merely a division taking in several 
Hundreds, is uncertain. Perhaps the name did not 
arise till a later period At all events, the Hundred 
was the really important division, for traces of it are to be 
found among all German peoples. 

13, Chiefs, The Comitatus. — Every village and Hun- 
dred had its own Chiefs elected by the freemen. Higher 
than the chiefs of the Hundreds and villages was the 
chief of the tribe, appointed in the same way. Some 
tribes had Kings; but even Kings were elected, although 
always from some particular noble family believed to have 
sprung from the gods. The chiefs of the Hundreds formed 
what Tacitus calls the pri^ices of a tribe, and acted as a 
Council to the King or other supreme chief. By far the 
most important right of a chief was the power to form 
a Comitatus or Gefolge — that is, to gather round him a 
body of men devoted to his service. The princes vied 
with each other in having large numbers of followers. The 
men swore to be always faithful to their lord ; and to 
be untrue to this oath was thought the worst possible 
crime. In return for their services, the chief provided 



8 ANCIENT GERMANY. [chap. 

his men with war-horses, armour, and food ; and if the 
tribe was not at war, he often gave them fresh opportunities 
of distinguishing themselves by taking part in the wars of 
other tribes. 

14. Meetings of the people. — Important as was the 
position of the chiefs in ancient Germany, their power 
was comparatively limited. Above all chiefs were the 
Meetings of the people. Even the village had its Meeting; 
but the really important Meetings were those of the 
Hundred and of the tribe. These Meetings were not, 
like modern Parliaments, representative. All freemen 
had a right to attend them. The Meetings of the village 
and of the Hundred did not concern themselves with the 
affairs of the tribe. These came before the Meeting of the 
whole people. It was in this general Meeting that the 
chiefs were elected — not only the King or other chief of 
the tribe, but the chiefs of the various Hundreds. Here 
also the young freeman received from his father or some 
prince the arms which were the symbol that he had attained 
to a -position of independence in the tribe. All difficult 
cases of justice were decided by the Meeting of the tribe ; 
it also declared war and concluded peace, and sanctioned 
the occasional distant expeditions of the chiefs with their 
followers. When questions of unusual difficulty were to 
come before the Meeting, they were discussed beforehand 
by the King or other chief and the princes of the tribe ; but 
the ultimate decision lay with the people themselves. 
The common freeman rarely took a leading part in the 
deliberations. The chiefs laid their proposals before the 
people in plain terms, stating the arguments on each 
side. If the freemen did not agree with their chiefs, 
they expressed their opinion by cries of dissent ; they 
signified their approval of a proposal by clashing their 
armour. 



r.] THE ARMY, 



15. The Army. — The aniiy was not something different 
from the people \ it was the people themselves. Eveiy 
freeman bore arms, and might at any moment be called 
into active service. Spears were the weapons most 
commonly used. Each warrior had also a shield long 
enough to cover almost the whole body. The cavalry 
had no other armour ; but those who fought on foot had 
missile weapons, which they could hurl to a great distance. 
They sometimes used battle-axes and clubs ; sv/ords were 
little known. The cavalr}-- never used saddles. The 
different companies were not made up of men chosen at 
random ; the freemen of each Hundred kept together, 
and the minor divisions were composed of kinsmen and 
friends. Each prince commanded his own Hundred. 
The supreme command was undertaken by the king or 
chief of the tribe, or by a Herzog .elected by the freemen. 
If several tribes united to carry on a war, the Herzog, 
or commander-in-chief, was elected by the princes. The 
line of battle was arranged in the form of a wedge, the 
bravest and most experienced being put in front. Cavalry 
and infantry were so placed that they helped to protect 
each other. When about to make an attack, all joined 
in a sort of chant, putting their shields to their mouths 
to make the sound more terrible. To throw away their 
shields on the field of battle was in the highest degree 
disgraceful. Those guilty of this crime often killed 
themselves, being unable to bear the contempt of their 
kinsmen. 

16. Religion. — The Germans, like their Scandinavian 
kinsmen, inherited the common Aryan religion, and gave 
it forms adapted to their own modes of thought and feeling. 
Their chief god was IVodan. Dollar^ or TJior^ the god 
of thunder, was also very powerful. The gods were not 
worshipped in temples, but in sacred groves. Sacrifices 



lo ANCIENT GERMANY. [ch. i.] 

were offered to them, sometimes even human sacrifices ; 
and their will was found out by means of lots, the flight 
of birds, and the neighing of sacred horses. The Gennans 
believed that the gods took a direct interest in human 
affairs, , and that in a future life they rewarded brave men 
and punished cowards.* 



CHAPTER II. 

THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS. 

Arioz'isfiis ; C. yiiliiis CcBsar ; Gernians in the Roman service (i) 
— Dnisns tries to conquer Germafiy (2) — Tiberius in Germany; 
Arniinius defeats Varus (3) — Gennanicus atid Arminius (4) 
— Maroboduus; defeated by Arminius; death of Arminius ; (5) 
Claudius Civilis rebels against the Romans; encouraged by 
Vclleda ; is defeated (6) — the Marcomannic War (7). 

I. Ariovistus. C. Julius Csesar. — The first German name 
that appears in history is that of Ariovistics^ a Suevic king 
whose fame had spread beyond the bounds of Germany. 
The Seqttcini and ^dui^ two GaUic tribes, having fallen 
out, the former begged this great chief to come to their 
aid. He did so, but in the end, in 60 B.C., conquered both *' 
tribes. He thus made himself master of the whole terri- 
tory between the Upper Rhine and the Loire. The Romans 
at first treated him as a friend ; but, in the year 58 B.C., y^ 
C. Julius CcBsar, to whom the Gauls had appealed for help, 
marched against him, and defeated him. Csesar conquered 
the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine as completely as 
the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul. He twice crossed the Rhine; 
but he did not do much harm either time. He formed a 
high opinion of German bravery, and got many warriors 
to enter the Roman service. From this time it became 
common for Germans to serve as Roman soldiers ; and in 
the end they formed by far the best part of the Roman 
army. 



12 THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS. [chap. 

2. Drusus. — About the beginning of the Christian sera 
the Romans tried hard to make Germany a Roman pro- 
vince. The first general who made the attempt was D?^usus^ 
the step-son of the Emperor Augustus. He cut a canal 
between the Rhine and the Yssel^ and in the year 12 B.C. 
sailed along the coasts of the North Sea. He defeated the 
Bructeri^ who had collected a fleet in the Ems for the pur- 
pose of opposing him. Drusus afterwards made three 
different expeditions into the heart of Germany. In the 
year 9 B.C. he defeated the Chatti with their allies the 
Marcomanni^ and advanced as far as the Elbe. On his 
way back he was killed by a fall from his horse. Had 
Drusus lived, he would probably have conquered a con- 
siderable part of Germany. He had built no fewer than 
fifty fortresses along the Rhine, besides others in different 
parts of the country. 

3. Tiberius. Varus. Arminius. — The struggle begun by 
Drusus was carried on by Tibeidus, In 8 B.C. the latter 
conquered the Tencteid and Usipetes. The Sica^ibri bravely 
opposed him ; but having got their chiefs in his power by 
treacher}^, he easily overcame the people. In order to make 
them harmless for the future, he sent about 40,000 of them 
into Gaul, near the mouths of the Rhine, where they 
remained unwilling subjects of Rome. After this several 
tribes became allies of the Romans, and it seemed for a 
time as if Germany were soon, like Gaul, to form part of the 
Roman Empire. It was the foolish conduct of Qiniictilius 
Varus^ a Roman general, that kept this from coming 
about. Varus came to Germany in the year 6 A.D., and, 
fancying that the people were thoroughly subdued, began to 
rule as he had formerly done among the eastern subjects of 
Rome. He even claimed the right to put German freemen 
to death. The Germans were indignant at this treatment, 
and longed to throw off the foreign yoke. At last 



II.] GERMANICUS, " 13 

a young Cheruscan chief, called Armimiis, who had 
served in the Roman army, and Jiad been made a 
Roman citizen and knight, resolved to win back the 
freedom of his people. He spoke in secret with the 
chiefs of his own and other tribes, and found them more 
than willing to support him. When everything was ready, 
Vams, w^ho was in the land of the Cherusci, not far from 
the Weser, was told that a tribe in the north had revolted. 
At the head of a large army he at once set out to punish 
the rebels. He was led, with his legions, into the depths of 
the Teutoburg Wood. Heavy rains had been falling for 
some time, so that marching was difficult. Suddenly, when 
no' one dreamed of danger, the Romans looked up, and saw 
that the wooded heights above and around them were 
covered by armed men. The Germans fiercely avenged 
the wrongs they had suffered. Of the whole Roman army 
scarcely a man escaped. Varus, severely wounded, fell 
upon his sword and killed himself. 

4. Germanicus. — In consequence of this defeat, the 
Romans did not even enter Germany for some years. 
But when Tiberitis became Emperor, Gennanicus^ the son 
of Drusus, tried- to follow in the steps of his father. In the 
year 14 he suddenly attacked the Marsi, a tribe on the 
right bank of the Middle Rhine, and defeated them. The 
neighbouring tribes at once rose against him, and compelled 
him to withdraw. Next year he returned, and was joined 
by many Germans, the Chanel being especially useful allies. 
Arminius, whose wife Thusjielda had been sent by Ger- 
manicus as a prisoner to Rome, hurried through the land of 
the Cherusci and allied tribes, and roused the people against 
the Romans. He attacked the Roman cavalry in the 
Teutoburg Wood, where Germanicus halted to bury the 
remains of the warriors v/ho had fallen five years before. 
The Germans gained no decided victory, but Germanicus 



14 . THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS. [chap. 

was weakened, and felt it necessary to retreat. In the 
year i6, he put forth all his strength against the Ger- 
mans, and defeated them in a battle near Mmden, The 
Romans claimed the victory in a second battle, but their 
losses were so great that they had to retreat to their ships. 
These were overtaken by a violent storm, and greater part 
of the fleet perished. After this the Romans did not again 
try to conquer Germany. 

5. Maroboduus. Death of Arminius. — Meanwhile, a new 
danger had arisen within Germany itself After being 
defeated by Drusus, the Marcomanni, headed by their chief 
Marobodims^ had wandered eastwards and taken possession 
of the country now called Bohemia, Maroboduus became 
a very powerful king, and conquered the leading Suevic 
tribes. He might have brought all Germany under his 
rule ; but after the withdrawal of Germanicus, Arminius 
made war on him, and so utterly defeated him that his 
kingdom was broken up, and he himself had to seek refuge 
in Rome, Arminius thus probably saved the freedom of 
the Germans a second time. We know nothing of the 
last years of Arminius. In the year 21, at the age of thirty- 
seven, he was murdered. He was a true hero, to whom 
the whole Teutonic race owes a debt of gratitude. 

6. Claudius Civilis. — In the year 69 the Batavians and 
the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine rebelled against 
the Romans. The rebellion was headed by Claudius Civilis^ 
a Batavian who had for many years served in the Roman 
army, but had been harshly treated by the Emperor Ne7'o. 
Some Gallic tribes joined him ; and the Bructeri and other 
Germans on the right bank of the Rhine gladly sent him 
aid. A Bmcterian maid, Velleda^ who lived in a lonely 
tower in the forests near the Lippe^ and was looked up to 
as a prophetess, encouraged him and his followers by high- 
sounding promises. For a time Civilis was successful ; but 



11.] THE MARCOMANNIC WAR, 15 

fortune soon turned. The Roman general Cerealis twice 
defeated him. Civihs still held out for a time ; but in the 
end the Batavians had to return to their allegiance. They 
v/ere not asked to pay tribute, but had to send men to ti e 
Roman army. 

7. The Marcomannic Waf.- — In the second century 
there were new wars between the Romans and the Germans, 
but now the latter, not the former, were the aggressors. 
Of these wars the chief was the Marcomannic war^ carried 
on by Marcus Aurelitis for thirteen years against a va^t 
body of Germans, headed by the Marcoman7ii and the 
Quadi, and joined by various non-German tribes. Ths 
invasion which led to this war may be looked on as the first 
of those which were afterwards to break up the Empire. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE FRANKS, y 

German tribes leave the mother country (l) — the Alemanni ; the 
Franks ; the Saxons and Frisians ; the Thiwingians ; the Ba- 
varians (2) — the Franks the most important group of tribes ; 
the Ripitarians (3)— //^^ Salian Franks (4) — King Chlodio ; 
state of Society among the Salians about Chlodio'' s time (5) — 
Aleroivig; Childe7'ic (6) — Chlodwig; conquers Gaid {"]) — becomes 
Christian (8) — conquers the Alemanni; unites all Frankish 
tribes {')) — lands seized by Chlodwig; allodial and fiscal lands 
(10) — Chlodivig^s successors (11)— power of the Merowi?/gian 
Kings (12) — Cans and Duchies ; Dukes and Counts (13) — 
Benefices (14) — Officers of the royal household (15). 

I. Wanderings of German Tribes. -^Between the third 
and the sixth centuries great changes took place in Ger- 
many. Whole tribes and confederations of tribes left the 
mother country and founded powerful kingdoms else- 
where. The Goths were the first to set the example. They 
pushed towards the south-east. In the fourth century 
their great King Eor?ne7i7'ic ruled over a kingdom reaching 
from the Baltic to the Black Sea. This kingdom was 
broken up by the Huns, to whom the East Goths became 
for a time subject, while the West Goths crossed the Danube 
and settled within Roman territory. Early in the fifth 
century the Vandals, the Burgujidians, and various Stievic 
peoples wandered westwards into Ganl. The Suevi and the 
Vandals entered Spain^ and conquered it. The Vandals 



[CH. III.] GROUPS OF TRIBES, 17 

afterwards founded a kingdom in Africa^ the capital of 
A'hich was Carthaj^e. The Burgimdians remained in Gaul, 
and founded a kingdom which in the end took in the valley 
of the Rhone and the Saone^ and the western half oi 
Helvetia. These tribes were followed by the West Goths, 
who conquered Spain and the southern part of Gaul. The 
East Goths, under their King Theodoric, established a great 
kingdom in Italy, Some years after they were driven from 
Italy, in the sixth century, their place was taken by the 
Lombards^ whose power proved firmer and more enduring. 
In the fifth century our own forefathers began to leave their 
seats on the shores of the North Sea, and to settle in 
Britain. Many of the lands which these tribes had held 
fell into the hands of the Sclaves, so that the Elbe and the 
Saal became the eastern boundary of Germany. ^ 

2. Groups of Tribes. — We hear very little, after the 
third century, of the many tribes formerly scattered over 
Germany. They still existed, but they were joined together 
in groups or confederations. How these were formed, 
w^e do not know. The tie which united the members of 
a confederation was very loose. Still, the members of 
each confederation had a certain sense of kinship, and 
this prepared the way for a closer political connexion. 
The Alemanni^ who took in a number of Suevic tribes, 
were one of the most powerful of the confederations. In 
the third century they held the country between the 
Danube and the Main, and from thence made many 
incursions into Roman territory. They gradually advanced 
southwards and westwards as far as the Upper Rhine^ the 
Aar^ and the Vosges 7itountams. To the north of the 
Alemanni, from the Main to the mouths of the Rhine, were 
the Fy-anks. The land to the east of the Franks was 
held by the Saxojis and Frisians. The latter held ■ the 
whole line of coast from the Rhine to the Elbe ; the former, 

B 



iS THE FRANKS. [chap. 

the basins of the Lower Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems. The 
centre of what is now Germany was in the hands of the 
Thn7'ingians. They held the wooded mountains w^hich are 
still called by their name, and some part of the country to 
the north and south. These various confederations may pro- 
bably be identified with the groups into which the Germans, 
in the time of Tacitus, divided themselves. If so, the Saxons 
and Frisians would represent the ancient Ingaevones ; the 
Franks the htaevones^ and the Alemanni and Thuringians 
the He-nninones, Another confederation was gradually 
formed by the Goths who remained in Germany, the 
Marcomanni, and others. These were the Bojoarii or 
Bavarians^ whose country took in greater part of the 
basin of the Ittn^ and who became subject in turn to 
Odoacer and to Theodoric the Great. 

3. The Franks. The Ripuarians* — Of these groups of 
tribes, the Fi'anks were by far the most important. The 
history of the Franks is for several centuries the histoiy 
of Germany. They conquered the Gauls and their own 
kinsmen, and laid the foundation of the future kingdoms 
of Germany and France, From the. third century the 
Franks on the right bank of the Middle Rhine often broke 
into Gaul, and attacked the Romans. They several times 
conquered Kbln^ Mainz, and Trier, and harried the neigh- 
bouring lands. In the fourth century they were driven back 
by Constantine and yulian, and in the fifth by the great 
general Aetius; but in the latter half of the fifth century 
they were masters of the whole country between the Middle 
Rhine and the Maes. They held also part of the banks of 
the Moselle, and had lands as far south as the northern 
boundaries of the Alemanni and Burgundians. At this 
time their chief town was Kolnj and they were called 
(probably from Ripa, a bank) Riparii or Ripuarii. 

4. The Salian Franks. — The Franks who held the 



III.] KING CHLODIO. THE SALIC CODE. 19 

banks of the Lower Rhine were called by the Romans 
Salia7is. The Ripuarians were more numerous than the 
Salians ; but it was the Salians who founded the great 
Frankish kingdom. They sprang for the most part from 
those Sicambri whom Tiberius settled near the mouths of 
the Rhine, and were probably called Salians from a tribe 
which wandered westwards from the Yssel or Isala^ and 
united to form one people with the Sicambri. The Salians 
were nominally subject to the Romans, and served in the 
Roman army ; but they kept their native institutions, and 
always tried, when they had a chance, to become indepen- 
dent. At the time of Julian they held the country from the 
Lower Rhine to the west of the Maes. Julian advanced 
against them, and defeated them ; but he allowed them to 
keep the land they had seized. About the beginning of the 
fifth century they still served in the Roman army, but no 
longer recognised Roman supremacy. They probably then 
held the whole country between the Lower Rhine and the 
Schelde. 

5. King Chlodio. The Salic code. — The Salians were 
governed by Kings. Probably their first King — at all 
events, the first of whom we know anything — was Chlodio. 
He reigned about the middle of the fifth century. He 
was defeated by the Romans under Aetius ; but he 
succeeded in pushing his boundaries as far west as the 
Soinnie. He became a faithful ally of the Romans, who 
often afterwards — especially in the great battle fought 
in 451 against Atiila — received important aid from the 
Salians. The famous Salic Code was probably drawn up 
about the time of Chlodio. The state of soc'ety which it 
represents is in many respects the same as that described 
by Tacitus. The people, like all their kinsmen who had 
not left Germany, are still heathens. The tribe is divided 
into Hundreds, and these again into villages ; and the 



20 THE FRANKS. [chap. 

occupation of the people, when they are not engaged 
in war, continues mainly agricultural. But the position 
of the King has changed. He no longer receives his 
authority from the people ; he inherits it, and exercises 
it as a right. He appoints the chiefs, who are called 
Grafs or Counts^ and decides cases of justice which the 
Meeting of the Hundred — the largest that seems now to 
be held — cannot settle. There is no trace of the old 
noble class ; what raises men above their fellows is 
connexion with the King. Those whom he appoints to 
an office, and the members of his " Gefolge" or " Com.i- 
tatus," hold a very high position. The "Wergeld'^ of a 
Graf and of a follower of the King is three times as 
large as that of a common freeman. The King has 
thus already become the central element in the constitu- 
tion. He exercises supreme authority, and is the fountain 
of honour. This great increase of the royal power was 
perhaps partly due to the influence of Roman ideas, for 
the Salians in the Roman army would naturally learn 
habits of strict obedience. 

6. Merowig". Childeric. — The successor of Chlodio is 
said to have been Merowig. We know nothing certainly 
of this King. If he really existed, he must have made a deep 
impression on the men of his time, for the future Kings of 
the Franks were called after him Merowingiaiis. Childei'ic^ 
whose capital was Totcrnay^ was a great Salian King in the 
latter half of the fifth century. He aided the Romans 
against the West Goths, and is said also to have opposed 
the Alernanni, who were threatening Italy. The close con- 
nexion of the Salians with the Romans at this time prepared 
the way for the great career on which they were about to 
enter. 

7. Chlodwig. Conquest of Gaul. — Childeric was suc- 
ceeded, in 481, by his son, Chlodovech or Chlodwig. 



III.] CAUSES OF CHLOD WIG'S SUCCESS. 21 

Chlodwig was a mere boy when he became King, but he 
was destined to become one of the greatest conquerors in 
the history of the world. He began his career by attacking 
Syagriiis^ the governor of the part of Gaul which was 
still directly subject to Rome. Having defeated Syagrius 
near Soissons^ Chlodwig took possession of the country 
as far as the Seine, He afterwards became master of 
the land between the Seme and the Loii'e^ where the 
Armorican Republic is said to have been established. He 
also defeated the Burgundians, and made their King pay 
him tribute. Crossing the Loire, he defeated the West 
Goths in a battle near Poitiers. Chlodwig was unable 
to conquer the southern part of Gaul ; but after the defeat 
of the West Goths his kingdom reached as far south as 
the Garonne. Thus, within a short time, he had con- 
quered nearly the whole of Gaul. 

8. Causes of Chlodwig's success. — At first sight it 
appears strange that a petty King with comparatively 
few followers should do such great things ; and that, 
having conquered such vast territories, he should after- 
wards be able to hold the people in subjection. The 
chief cause of Chlodwig's success was that he had 
become a Christian. On Christmas day of 496 he was 
baptized with great pomp, with 3,000 of his warriors, at 
Rheiins. The story is that his baptism was the result 
of a vow made in the heat of a battle with the Alemanni 
near Ziilpich., that if the God of the Christians gave 
him the victory he would give up his gods and accept 
Christianity. The Franks in the old settlements in the 
neighbourhood of the Schelde were not converted for 
some time ; but from the time of his baptism Chlodwig's 
kingdom was at least nominally Christian. This fact did 
more for him than ail the bravery of his troops. • The 
Germans already settled in Gaul were Christians ; but they 



22 THE FRANKS, [chap. 

were not members of the Catholic- Church. They were 
Aria US. The Cathohc clergy, therefore, were their enemies, 
and longed for some ruler who should uphold the true 
faith. From the beginning they looked to Chlodwig 
with hope. When he entered the Church they warmly 
supported him ; and their friendship meant the good-will 
of the great body of the people. Another circumstance 
aided Chlodwig. The Emperor Anastasius^ anxious that 
the barbarian conqueror should have some formal con- 
nexion with the Roman Empire, sent him, after his victory 
over the West Goths, the titles of Consul and Patiidan. 
This seemed to make Chlodwig the lawful ruler of Gaul, 
and probably won over some whom even the Church might 
have failed to influence. 

9. Conquest of the Alemanni. Union of all Prankish 
Tribes. — Chlodwig was far more than the conqueror of 
Gaul. The Saxons, Thuringians, and Bavarians, did not 
fall under his power; but he subdued the Alemanni, and 
seems to have colonized the part of their territory between 
the Neckar and the Main with a Prankish population. 
He also united all the Frankish tribes under his rule. 
When he began his reign there was no political connexion 
between the Salians and the Ripuarians ; and the Salians 
themselves had other Kings besides Chlodwig. Chlodwig 
slew these Kings, and the King of the Ripuarians, together 
with their heirs. He appears to have taken possession of 
Salian territory as a right ; the Ripuarians elected him to be 
their King. The Franks of every tribe thus acknowledged 
one lord, and began to feel themselves bound together by 
many common interests. As the centre of a great kingdom, 
destined to be the most enduring of all the States founded 
by the Germans in foreign countries, they could not but 
learn to be proud of the common Frankish name. 

10. Lands seized by Chlodwig. — Chlodwig was not 



III.] CHLODWIG'S SUCCESSORS. 23 

followed into the heart of Gaul by the Salians as a people. 
He was accompanied .only by his *' Gefolge " and an army 
of freemen. He did not, therefore, like other German con- 
querors demand any particular proportion of the conquered 
territory. But he took possession of all public lands 
and of lands which had no certain owner. These w^ere 
divided between himself and those who accompanied him. 
Land allotted to, or seized by, a freeman, was called 
allodial. Allodial land was the absolute property of the 
possessor, held by him subject to no condition except that 
of aiding, when necessary, in the defence of the State. 
The lands kept for the King must have been very extensive. 
They were zzSi^d. fiscal lands, and became the chief source 
of the royal revenue. 

II. Chlodwi^s success6rs. — Chlodwig died in 511 in 
Paris. His kingdom was divided among his four sons. 
This division did not break up the unity of the kingdom. 
The subjects of the four brothers continued to look on 
themselves as members of one State. The East or Rhenish 
Franks, and those Germans to the east of the Rhine whom 
Chlodwig had conquered, were placed under Chlodwig's 
eldest son, Theodoric. His was by far the most powerful of 
the four divisions. He made the bulk of Thuringia tribu- 
tary ; and his son and successor, Theudebert^ subdued the 
Bavarians^ and completed the subjection of the Alejnamn. 
Thus the greater part of Germany was brought under the 
rule of the Franks. The Saxons and Frisians alone re- 
mained independent. Theodoric^s brothers, who, after the 
death of Theodoric the Great in 526, found little hindrance 
to their schemes of conquest, thoroughly mastered Bur- 
gundyy and gained possession of the southern part of 
Gaul. Chlotachar^ or Clothair /., Chlodwig^s youngest 
son, joined together again the whole Frankish kingdom. 
Under him the kingdom was almost as extensive as at any 



24 THE FRANKS, [chap. 

time for more than two centuries afterwards. Like his 
father, he was succeeded by his four sons ; but when one 
of these died, the kingdom was again divided. After this 
the different parts of the kingdom were several times 
brought together under one King ; but more usually there 
were three kingdoms — AnsU^asia^ the kingdom of the East 
Franks, Neustria^ the kingdom of the West Franks, and 
Burgundy, Neustria and Burgundy often went together, 
but Austrasia always tried to have a King of its own, and 
became more and more separated from the other kingdoms. 

12. The Merowingian King^s. — The Merowingian Kings 
were usually very bad rulers, but at first they had great 
power. There was for a time a yearly gathering of Frank- 
ish freemen, called, from the fact that it met in March, 
the MarcJifield. This was soon given up in Neustria, 
because the Franks lived at great distances from one 
another, and could not easily go to Meetings far away 
from their homes. In Austrasia the Marchfield was pro- 
bably only a military assembly. Thus the power which 
had once belonged to all freemen gradually passed into 
the hands of the King. The position of the Kings was 
further raised by their Roman subjects readily. conceding 
to them some of the powers which had belonged to the 
Emperors. 

13. Dukes and Counts. — The Frankish kingdoms were 
divided into Gaus or Districts^ each of which was governed 
by a Count. A number of Gaus made a Duchy^ over 
which was a Herzog or Duke. Each of the great groups or 
confederations of tribes in Germany formed a separate 
Duchy. The Dukes and Counts in Gaul were appointed 
solely by the King, and were looked on as his officers. 
The Bavarians elected their own Dukes ; and they always 
chose them from one noble family, the Agiloljijtgs. The 
Alemanni and Thurino^ians had also some share in the 



III.] BENEFICES. ' 25 

appointment of their Dukes. The freemen of each German 
Duchy mxt their Duke once in the year, and consulted 
with him on affairs of importance. Thus the Gemians to 
the east of the Rhine kept more of the old freedom than 
their Frankish conquerors. 

14. Benefices. — The Merowingian Kings soon adopted 
the Roman custom of granting lands on condition of 
military service. Such grants were called at first -benefices.^ 
but afterwards ^^''jr. They were made from the royal lands, 
and wxre usually given to the King's mat or vassals — that 
is, to the Dukes, Counts, and members of the " Gefolge.'^ 
Thus the service required by a Merowingian King from the 
holder of a benefice was not, like that required for lands 
granted by the Roman Government, service to the State ; 
it was the service of a vassal to his lord. The relation 
between the tw^o w^as w^holly personal in its character. 
Those who did not already hold this personal relation to 
the King, on receiving a benefice, became his men, and 
swore to be faithful to him and to give him service in war. 
From this combination of Roman and Teutonic ideas 
sprang the system of feudal te7iiires. [See the Gejieral 
Sketch of European History in this Series.] When 
benefices became hereditary, the holders usually granted 
pieces of land to others, who entered into the same relation 
to them that they held to the King. And in times of con- 
fusion, freemen very often gave up their lands to some 
powerful lord, and received them back asyf<f/Gr, thus binding 
themselves to serve him in war while he undertook to 
protect them against their enemies. In the end, the Dukes 
and Counts came to hold their Duchies and Counties 
in fief and thus looked on all fief-holders within their 
districts as their vassals. But this was not for some 
time yet. 

15. The Royal household. — The Merowingian Kings, 



26 THE FRANKS, [ch. hi.] 

having become rich and great, Hved in a style of which the 
early German Kings and chiefs had never dreamed. The 
duties of their household were divided among a large 
number of officers, among whom were the Seneschal^ the 
Marshal^ and the Chancellor. Over all officers of the court 
was the Major Do7nus^ or Mayor of the Palace, An officer 
oi less importance, at this time, was the Palsgrave^ or 
Count of the Palace^ whose duties had to do with the 
royal tribunal. These, and all other great officers, were 
taken chiefly from the members of the " Gefolge." They 
formed a Council which aided the King in administering 
justice and in carrying on the affairs of the State. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE, AND DUKES OF THE 

FRANKS* 



A new aristocracy arises ; the poiuer of the Kings lessened ( I ) — tht 
Mayors of the Palace the real rulers of the Frankish kittg- 
. doms (2) — Pippin of Her stall rules the East Franks; defeats 
the West Franks at Testri {3) — Charles Martel ; victory over 
the Arabs {^—Pippin the Short beco77ies King (5) — conversion 
of German tribes through the preaching of English. missionaries ; 
Winfrith ; the See of Mainz the head Church of Ger7?tany (6)» 

I. The rise of a new aristocracy. — The holders of 
benefices tried from the beginning to make their lands 
hereditary ; and many of them soon succeeded in doing so. 
Thus a great new aristocracy arose which took the place 
among the Franks of the old noble class. This aristocracy 
soon lessened the kingly power. Its leading members 
often met, and not only shared the government with the 
King, but sometimes forced him to confirm them in right-s 
which they had seized. Such gatherings took the place, to 
some extent, of the old national Meetings. The various 
Kings had given away so many lands as benefices that 
they were soon too poor to defend themselves. They were 
also weakened by carrying on many cruel wars with each 
other. Thus it came about that by the middle of the 
seventh century the Merovvingian Kings, who had for a 
time been so great, had lost nearly all their power. The 



28 THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE. [chap. 

Dukes, Counts, and other rich men, acted as if they were 
independent princes. The great German Duchies, although 
still nominally subject to the Franks, were practically free. 

2. Mayors of the Palace. — During this time of confusion 
the Mayors of the Palace rose to great power. They had 
long ceased to be mere household officers. They had at 
first been appointed by the King ; but, as they became 
more powerful, the aristocracy took the right of appointing 
them into its own hands. For a long time they were the 
real rulers of the Frankish kingdoms. They sometimes 
tried to keep the aristocracy in check ; but they were 
usually its representatives and leaders. One of the most 
famous Mayors of the Palace was Pippin of Landen, who? 
with Arnulfj Bishop of Metz, ruled Auctrasia in the early 
part of the seventh century. A little later, Ebroin was a 
great Mayor in Neustria and Burgundy. He made war on 
the East Franks, and was for some time successful ; but 
in the end he was killed. 

3. Pippin of Herstall. — While Ebroin ruled the West 
Franks, Pippiii of Herstall^ grandson of Arnulf by the 
father^s, and of Pippin of Landen by the mother's side, and 
his cousin Martin^ became leaders of tiie East Franks. 
They were called Dukes, and their position was very much 
the same as that of Dukes among the German kinsmen of 
the Franks. After Martin's death, the whole power fell 
into Pippin's hands. Although the East and West Franks 
had often been at war, neither had hitherto thoroughly 
overcome the other. In 687, Pippin utterly defeated the 
West Franks in the Battle of Testri. This battle marks 
an epoch in P^rankish history, for after it the first place in 
the kingdom openly belonged to the East Franks. Pippin 
did not dethrone the reigning Merowingian King ; but he 
kept all real power in his own hands. In Neustria, he 
took the title of Mayor of the Palace ; but in Austrasia, he 



IV.] CHARLES MAR TEL. ' 29 

ruled, as before, as Duke of the Fra7iks. He was by far 
the best ruler the Frankish kingdom had yet had. Ke 
fought hard to make the German Dukes return to thc'r 
allegiance ; and he was to som.e extent successful. He 
also made most of the Dukes and Counts in Gaul acknov\'- 
ledge his authority, and restored the Marchfield and other 
institutions that had been allowed to die away. Thus 
Pippin brought back something like order to the Frankish 
kingdom, and tried to make it once more a great and 
united State. He died in 714. 

4. Charles Martel. — After Pippin's death the Neustrians 
made war on the East Franks ; but his son Charles 
defeated them, first at Cainbi^ai^ and afterwards at Soissoiis. 
Charles thus rose like his father to supreme power. He 
also nominally ruled as a subject of the Merowingians. 
In order to have the means of rewarding his men, he 
^' resumed " many of the lands held by the Church in Gaul. 
This roused the opposition of the clergy, but it enabled 
Charles to surround himself by a large number of faithful 
followers. The task of joining together again the Roman 
and German provinces, which Pippin had begun, Charles 
carried on ; and he extended the kingdom by overcoming 
the Frisians. In 731 he gained a famous victory over the 
Arabs ^ who, having conquered Spain, tried also to conquer 
Gaul. From this victory, Charles was called Martel^ or 
the Hainmer. It won him great renown as the protector of 
Christendom. During the last few years of his life he 
was strong enough to rule without the appointment of 
a nominal King ; but he never took the royal title. He 
died in 741, and was succeeded by his two sons, Fijfjni 
the Short and Carbiian. 

5. Pippin the Short. — One of the first acts of the twp 
brothers was to appoint a successor to the last Merowingian 
King. They also tried to make the Church friendly to 



30 THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE. [chap. 

them. In 747 Carlman went into a monastery, and thus 
left the whole power to Pippin. The latter then began to 
think of making himself King. Even yet the people looked 
on the Merowingians as their lawful rulers ; but in 751 
Pippin got Pope Zacharias to decide that one who had the 
power of a King had a better right to the crown than one 
who was merely a King in name. Pippin held an Assembly 
at Soissons in 753, where Childeric III. was dethroned, and 
he himself w^as elected and crowned King. Thus the 
Merowingians were altogether thrust aside, and a new and 
stronger dynasty reigned in their stead. 

6. Conversion of German Tribes. — During this period 
many German tribes became Christian. So early as the 
sixth and the beginning of the seventh century, Irish and 
Prankish missionaries had tried to convert the Germans. 
In the latter half of the seventh century the task was taken 
up by countrymen of our own ; and they were the first to 
labour with the sanction of the Pope. Wilfrith^ who was 
accidentally driven, in 677, on the shores of Friesland 
preached there with great success. His work was carried 
on by Willibrord^ who lived among the Frisians about 
fifty years. Greater than either of these was Wi7ifrith^ 
afterwards called Saint Boniface and the Apostle of the 
Germa7is. He helped Willibrord for some time, but 
spent the greater part of his life in Southern and Central 
Germany. In 723 he was made ^'' Episcopus Regionarins^^ 
of Germany — that is. Bishop without any special diocese. 
After this he brought tribe after tribe within the Church, 
and founded various bishopricks and monasteries. In 
732 he received the archiepiscopal pillium, and in 742 
presided over the first Gen?ia7t Synod. In 745 he was 
appointed, as Metropolitan of Germany, to the See of 
Mainz^ which from this time occupied in the German 
Church the position held by the See of Canterbury in 



IV.] CONVERSION OF GERMAN TRIBES, 31 

the Church of England. Ten years afterwards he was 
killed in Friesland w^hile on his way to confirm some 
converts. At the time of Winfrith's death, and chiefly 
owing to his efforts, all Germany, with the exception of 
Saxony, was nominally Christian. The old pagan ideas 
still influenced to some extent the minds of the people ; but 
the good seed had been sown, and soon began to spring up 
and to bear fruit. 



CHAPTER V. 

CHARLES THE GREAT. 

Khig Pippin; defeats the Lombards; is made Patrician; his wars (i) 
— Charles the Great ; conquers the Saxons (2) — conquers the 
Lombards (3) — conquers part of Spain {4) — dep7'ives the Duke 
of Bavai'ia of his Duchy ; cojiquers the Avars (5) — lessens th& 
power of the pro7jincial governors ; Margraves ; Missi Do- 
tninici ; National Assemblies ; protection of the Church; encour- 
age?nent of leai'ning ; Alctdti (6) — is crowned Roman Emperor (7) 
— conquest of Bohemia ; botcndaries of the Empire ; capitals of 
the Empire (8) — Charles's son Lewis crowned ; death of Charles (9) 
— Lewis the Pious ; divides the Empire among his sons ; thidr 
rebellions (10) — battle of Fontenay ; Treaty of Verduii (11). 

I. King Pippin. — At this time the Lombards had posses- 
sion of Ravenna, and were threatening Rome. Pope 
Zacharias, in aiding Pippin to become King, had hoped 
that he would come to the help of the Church. For some 
time he did not do so ; but in the end he made two 
expeditions into Italy, and defeated the Lombards. He 
thus became lord of Rome. Probably in return for his 
services, he received from the Pope the title of Patricia/i. 
The Pope had no legal right to give this title, and the 
duties connected with it were very vague ; but it mnce 
Pippin still more friendly to the Church, and added con- 
siderably to his dignity. The rest of Pippin's life was 
chiefly spent in wars, which he carried on with great vigour. 
After a struggle which lasted for seven years, he finally 



[CH. V. ] CONQ VEST OF THE SAXONS B Y CHARLES. 33 

wrested the south of Gaul from the Arabs ; and he forced 
the Aquitanians to submit, really as well as nominally, to 
Frankish authority. He died in 768. 

2. Charles the Great. Conquest of the Saxons. — The 
kingdom was divided between Pippin's two sons, Charles 
and Carlman. The latter died in 771, and Charles became 
sole King. Charles was a man of great strength both of 
mind and body, and soon became one of the greatest Kings 
that have ever lived. When he began his reign, the only 
German people who had never been subject to the Franks 
were the Saxons. They were still heathens, and kept 
almost all the old German institutions. Their land reached 
from the mouths of the Elbe southwards to Thuringia and 
westwards nearly to the Rhine. Charles resolved to 
conquer them, and in 772 set out against them with a large 
army. He took their chief fortress, Eresbtcrg, and destroyed 
Irminsul, a mysterious column which they held in great 
awe. As the people seemed to submit, he thought he had 
already conquered them ; but in reality he had begun a 
war which was to last thirty years. The Saxons loved 
freedom, and again and again, when they had seemed 
utterly worn out, arose and threw off the Frankish yoke. 
A chief called Widickind especially distinguished himself 
by his resistance to Charles. Charles was so irritated by 
the trouble the people gave him that in 782 he caused nO 
fewer than 4,500 prisoners to be put to death ; but even 
this did not crush them. In the end, however, he over- 
came them, and forced them to accept Christianity. 

3. Conquest of the Lombards. — When Charles was 
engaged in his first expedition into Saxony, the Lombards 
again threatened Rome. He at once hastened to the help 
of the Pope and the Roman people, and in 774 thoroughly 
conquered the Lombards. He allowed Lombrady to 
remain a separate kingdom, but deposed the Lombard 

C 



34 CHARLES THE GREAT, [chap. 



King, and himself took the crown. From this time 
Charles's full title was King of the Franks and Lombards 
and Patrician of the Ro77ians, 

4. Expedition into Spain. — While Charles was in 
Saxony, in "j^^^ holding an Assembly at Paderborn^ am- 
bassadors from the governors of Zaragoza and Llnesca came 
and asked him for help against Abderrha^naii^ the Caliph 
of Cordova. He promised to aid them, and in ^^% made 
an expedition into Spain, the result of which was that he 
extended the boundary of his kingdom across the Pyrenees 
as far as the Ebro. When coming back he sustained a 
heavy loss. He himself, with the greater part of his army, 
reached the northern side of the Pyrenees in safety ; but a 
large body bringing up the rear was suddenly attacked by 
the Basques in the pass of Roncesvalles,, and almost wholly 
cut down. 

5. The Duke of Bavaria. Conquest of the Avars. — At 
this time there was a very powerful Duke in Bavaria, called 
Thassilo, of the native house of the Agilolfings. He had 
been defeated by Pippin the Short, but had soon thrown 
off his allegiance. In y^^, Charles marched against him. 
He at once submitted, but as he rebelled in the following 
year he was condemned to death by an Assembly which 
met at Lngelheim. Charles spared his life, but deposed 
him, and in future governed Bavaria by means of Counts. 
He also made the bishoprick of Salzburg into an arch- 
bishoprick, which took in the whole of Bavaria. Some 
years afterwards Charles conquered the Avars, a Turanian 
people who had a great kingdom to the east of Bavaria in 
ancient Pannonia and the neighbouring lands on the left 
bank of the Danube. 

6. Government of Charles. — Charles was not less great 
as a ruler than as a conqueror. One of his chief objects 
during his whole reign was to lessen the power of the 



v.] GOVERNMENT OF CHARLES. 35 

Dukes and Counts. In Germany he did away altogether 
with the title of Duke. The border districts of the kingdom 
were made into Marks, and placed under Margraves or 
Marquesses, whose chief duty was to drive back or conquer 
neighbouring tribes. Of these Marks Carmthia, which 
reached from the Adriatic to the Danube, was one of the 
chief. Another, to the east of Bavaria, intended at first 
for the defence of Bavaria against the Avars, was after- 
w^ards called Oesterreich or Austria, and became one of 
the most important lands in Germany. All parts of 
Charles's dominions were visited four times in the year by 
a peculiar class of officers called Missi Dommici. They 
reported to him the state of the country, and heard 
appeals from the lower tribunals. An appeal might be 
made from them to the royal tribunal, which was now 
presided over by the Palsgrave. Two Assemblies met 
Charles in the course of the year — one in May, and 
another in autumn. They were attended by the Dukes, 
Counts, Prelates, and other leading men of the State. 
These gatherings could only discuss and advise ; Charles 
himself decided what should become law. Meetings of 
the people were also held in different parts of the king- 
dom, at which new laws were made known by the Missi. 
Charles acted always as a protector of the Church. He 
founded many bishopricks and monasteries, and gave 
them rich lands. He also made the payment of tithes 
compulsory throughout his dominions. Everywhere, but 
especially in Germany, he gave the prelates a much 
higher position than they had yet had, that they might 
act as a check on the secular governors. Charles also 
encouraged learning, and got many scholars to come and 
stay at his court. Of these the chief was EalJiwine or 
Alcuin, a native of Great Britain. He was Charles's 
most honoured friend and counsellor for about twenty 



36 CHARLES THE GREAT. [chap. 

years. By his advice Charles set up schools in con- 
nexion with monasteries. Some of these schools became 
very famous, and helped during several centuries to keep 
learning from altogether dying out. 

7. Charles crowned Roman Emperor.— By the end of 
the eighth century Charles ruled so many lands that he 
was crowned Ernpey'or of the Romans by Pope Leo LLL. in 
St. Peter's on Christmas Day of 800. [See the Ge7ierat 
Sketch of European History.'] Soon after his coronation 
he made his subjects renew their oath of allegiance to 
him. They had to swear allegiance to him as Emperor, 
for as Emperor he claimed far more thorough submission 
than was due to a mere King, perfect obedience to the 
Emperor being in those days looked on as one with perfect 
obedience to God. 

8. Extent of Charles's Empire. — Even after his 
coronation as Emperor, Charles had some trouble with 
the Saxons ; but they were worn out by their long struggle, 
and had at last to submit. Thus all Germany was brought 
for the first time under the rule of one man. Charles also 
carried on wars with the Da7tes, and with the Czechs or 
Bohemians and the other Sla.vonic tribes on th-e eastern 
borders of Germany. All these submitted to him. 
When at its height, Charles's Empire reached from the 
Baltic to the Ebro^ from the North Sea and the Eider 
to Central Ltaly^ and from the- Atlantic to the Save, the 
Theiss, the Oder, and the Lower VistiUa. Of this great 
Empire the Rhineland, the home of the East Franks, was 
looked on as the centre. Its capitals were Rome and 
Aache7ij and Charles had also palaces at En^ilc7iheim or 
Lngelheim, Worms, and He7'stall. Aachen was his favourite 
city. He built there not only a palace, but a fine basilica, 
from which the town has received its French name of 
A ix-la- Chape lie. 



v.] LEWIS THE PIOUS. 37 

9. Death of Charles, — Charles wished to divide his 
Empire between his three sons, Charles^ Pippin^ and 
Lewis; but the two first died before him. Lewis, therefore, 
was crowned as his father's successor at an Assembly in 
Aachen in 813. Early in the following year (814), Charles 
died, and was buried under the dome of the basilica which 
he had built in Aachen. 

10. Lewis the Pious. — Lewis — called Lewis the Pious — 
proved altogether unfit for his great duties. He was well- 
meaning, but had no strength of character. Although 
crowned in his father's lifetime^ he allowed the ceremony 
to be repeated by Pope Stephe^t III. at Rheiuts. In 817 
he summoned an Assembly at Aachen, and divided the 
Empire between his three sons, Lothar^ Pij)pin^ and Lewis, 
Lothar, who was associated with his father in the Empire, 
received the Rhineland and Italy; Pippin, Aqiiitania; 
and Lewis, Bavaria and the adjoining districts. After- 
wards Lewis had a fourth son, Charles^ by a second 
marriage. In 829, he made a separate kingdom for this 
son. The three older sons, thinking themselves wronged, 
rebelled, and got the better of Lewis, who for a time 
lost all power. In 833 the same sons again rebelled. 
This time Lewis's troops went over almost in a body to 
the rebels ; and Lothar not only proclaimed himself 
Emperor, but put his father in a monastery, and afterwards 
made him appear before a public Assembly and confess a 
long list of crimes. Lewis was again placed on the throne ; 
but he soon brought new troubles on himself. After 
Pippin's death, in 838, he agreed to an arrangement by 
which the greater part of the Empire was divided between 
Lothar and Charles (afterwards called The Bald), while 
Bavaria alone was left subject to Lewis. The latter at 
once took up arms. While the Emperor was trying to put 
down this new rebellion, he was overtaken by uhies.s. 



38 THE TREATY OF VERDUN, [ch. v.] 

He retired to an islet on the Rhine near Ingelheim, and 
there, in 840, died. 

II. The Treaty of Verdun. — Lothar took the Imperial 
title, but war at once broke out between him and his 
brothers Lewis and Charles, who united against him. A 
great battle was fought at Fo7itenay in 841, in which, after 
fearful slaughter, the allied brothers gained the victory. 
At last, in 843, the war was brought to an end by the 
Treaty of Verdim. Lothar, who kept the title of Emperor, 
received Italy and a long narrow strip of territory reaching 
from the Mediterranean to the North Sea. This kingdom 
was called, after luoXhsx^ Lotharingia — a name which was 
afterwards confined to the country to the north of Burgundy. 
The territory to the west of Lothar's country was given to 
Charles. It was called Karolingia. Lewis received Ger- 
many, or the Teutonic Kingdom. It reached from the 
Rhine eastwards to the Elbe, the Saal, and the Bohemian 
Forest, and from the North Sea southwards to the Alps. 
Lewis also received the three towns, Mains, Speyer, and 
Wor7ns ; and he claimed supremacy over the Slavonic 
tribes which Charles the Great had conquered. All three 
brothers were called Kings of the Franks. The two younger 
brothers allowed a certain pre-eminence to the elder as 
Emperor ; but in reality they were quite independent of 
him. From this time is usually dated the existence of 
Germany as a separate kingdom. 



CHAPTER VL 

THE LATER KARLINGS. 

Wars of Lewis the German with the Northmen and the Slaves (i) — 
Charles the Fat b£C07?ies King of Germany and Emperor ; de- 
thi'oned (2) — the East and West Franks sepa7'ate (3) — Arnulf 
defeats the Northmen ; becomes Eviperor (4) — invasions of the 
Magyars ; Lewis the Child defeated {^)— feudal ie7tU7'es in Ger- 
ma7iy [6)— power of the feudal lords ; p7'ivate wa7's (7) — wealth 
of the Chu7xh ; good influence of the cleigy (S) — smwce of the 
Ls.i7i^s reve7iue (9) — tJie Diet ; atte7ided by the nobles (10) — 
''Hdia7ui'' (II), 

I. Lewis the German. — King Lewis — called Lewis the 
German — had enemies who taxed his strength to the utmost. 
Even in the days of Charles the Great, Scandinavian pirates, 
or Northme7i^ as they were called, threatened the northern 
coasts of Europe. The fame of Charles kept them in check ; 
but after his death they became more bold, and spread 
alarm through a great part of Europe. Their plan was to 
enter the larger rivers in shallow boats, attack the towns 
tiiey passed, and seize all the booty on which they could 
lay their hands. They even carried their skiffs sometimes 
to inland streams, and appeared suddenly where they were 
not in the least expected. They were not only heathens, 
but appear to have hated Christianity, for they never spared 
churches and monasteries. During the reign of Charles the 
Bald alone they twice sailed to Paris ^ where they gave 
themselves up to every excess. Lewis the German also 



40 THE LATER KARLINGS, [chap. 

had to resist them. He did his utmost to protect his king- 
dom ; but all his efforts could not prevent the invaders 
from doing much harm. About 847 a large body of 
them sailed up the Elbe to Hainbiu^g^ and burned greater 
part of the town. The Emperor Lewis had founded an 
archiepiscopal See in Hamburg, which was to be the centre 
of the northern missions. The Archbishop now fled to 
B7'e7ne7i^ which henceforth became the seat of the northern 
archbishoprick of Germany. Besides resisting the North- 
men, King Lewis was often at war with the Slaves ; he also 
had quarrels with Charles the Bald, who was always trying 
to add to his kingdom, and got himself crowned Emperor 
in 875. Lewis died suddenly va Frankfurt in 876. 

2. Charles the Fat. — Lewis's son, Charles the Fat, at 
first reigned in Germany along with his elder brothers, 
Carhnan and Lewis ; but after their death he became sole 
German King. He also became King of Italy, and received 
from the Pope the Imperial crown. In 884 the West Franks, 
who were never in greater need of a powerful ruler, elected 
him to their vacant throne. If v/e except the kingdom of 
Burgundy, v/hich had passed into the hands of Charles the 
Bald's brother-in-law, Duke Boso, almost the whole of the 
Empire of Charles the Great was now re-united under 
Charles the Fat. The Northmen poured into his dominions 
at many points, and in 885 appeared a third time before 
Paris. They were bravely resisted ; but the Emperor, 
instead of helping Paris, was mean enough to buy off the 
enemy by paying a large sum. Charles was so weak a 
ruler that, at an Assembly held at T7'ibur in 887, he was 
dethroned. He then retired to a monastery, and died in 



3. Separation of the East and West Franks. — The 

Karolingian Empire now fell to pieces. The Eastern and 
Western kingdoms were never again joined together ; and 



n.] LEWIS THE CHILD, THE HUNGARIANS. 41 

for a time Italy and Burgundy were also separated from 
Germany. The King of Germany was still called King of 
the East Franks j but East Francia,, or Franconia^ was 
only one part, although at this time the leading part, of the 
German kingdom. It took in the basins of the Main, the 
Neckar, and the Lahn. To the north were Saxo7iy and 
Thuringia^ and to the south and south-east Alemaiifiia or 
Swabia, and Bojoaria or Bavaria. As yet Lotharingia did 
not belong decidedly either to the Eastern or Western 
kingdom. 

4. Arnulf. — The successor of Charles the Fat in Germany 
"was his brother Carlmans^s illegitimate son, Arnidf. This 
brave King won great fame by defeating the Northmen at 
Low en in 891. After this Germany was comparatively 
little troubled by the Scandinavian sea-robbers. In 894, 
Arnulf went to Italy, and, having taken Rom^e, was 
crowned Emperor. He had, however, no real power in 
Italy, and soon returned to Germany, where he died in 899. 

5. Lewis the Child. The Hungarians. — Arnulf was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Lewis the Child. The short reign of 
Lewis was one of the most unhappy in the history of 
Germany. A Turanian race, called Magyars or Hun- 
garians^ had now begun to settle in the country formerly 
held by the Avars. They had helped Arnulf in a war he 
carried on with the Moravians ; but almost immediately 
after his death they invaded Germany, and year after year 
they came back during the whole of Lewis's reign. As they 
fought on horseback, while the Germans for the most part 
fought on foot, the .latter were defeated in nearly every 
battle. The people had almost no means of sheltering 
themselves, for as yet there were few towns in Germany, so 
that multitudes were slain, and others were driven into 
Hungary as captives. • The Hungarians were a fierce 
people, and always made a desert of the country th-^y 



42 THE LATER KARLINGS, [chap, 

passed through. In 910 Lewis made a great effort to drive 
them back, but he was defeated and compelled to pay 
tribute. He died in the following year ; and with him 
ended in Germany the Karolingian dynasty. 

6, Feudalism in Germany, — The old constitution of Ger- 
many had now almost altogether died out. We have seen 
that Charles the Great did away with the ducal title in 
Germany. After his time strong local governors w^ere so 
much needed that Dukes began again to be appointed. 
Thus at the time we have now reached, or soon afterwards, 
each of the great groups or confederations of tribes had its 
own Duke. The Dukes generally sprang from the old 
ducal families ; but they now^ held their Duchies in fief of 
the King. That is, they were his men, and swore to be 
faithful to him ; and in return he undertook to protect them 
in their lands and offices. Beneath the Dukes were the 
Margraves, Counts, and other great fief-holders within the 
Duchies. These held the same relation to the Dukes that 
the Dukes held to the King, and had, or might have, many 
vassals under them. The great feudal lords were looked 
on as noble^ and had quite taken the place of the old noble 
class spoken of by Tacitus. There were now very few 
powerful freemen in Germany. During the reign of Charles 
the Great many had become vassals of great lords, because 
the service they had to render as vassals was not so hard as 
that which Charles required of freemen in order to carry on 
his many wars. In the time of confusion which followed 
his reign, some were forced by powerful neighbours to 
change the free tenure of their lands into a feudal tenure ; 
others made the change of their own will, in order to obtain 
protection against great nobles or foreign invaders. Many 
freemen who did not become feudal tenants, but who were 
unable to protect themselves, lost their freedom altogether. 
Thus the class which had once formed the chief strength 



VI,] POSITION OF THE KING, 43 

of the State became less and less important, till at last 
free communities no longer existed except in towns and 
in districts where they could not easily be subdued, as 
among the valleys" of the Alps and along the shores of the 
North Sea. The lowest class in the State was made up of 
tributary and dependant peasants, and of serfs who usually 
passed with the land from one master to another. 

7. Position of the King. Private War. — Feudalism 
having thus taken the place of the old constitution in 
Germany, the King was now much more the head of a 
great aristocracy than the sovereign of a nation. There 
was still a royal tribunal, presided over by the Palsgrave ; 
but each great feudal lord had his own court, in which he 
administered justice according to local customs. When his 
vassals were faifthful to him, the King was still very power- 
ful ; but the Dukes usually gave him service unwillingly, 
unless they had some end of their own to gain. On the 
other hand, the Margraves, Counts, and others treated the 
Dukes in this respect exactly as the Dukes treated the 
King. When any of the nobles fell out, they rarely settled 
their quarrel peacefully. Every good King tried to put 
down private war ; and some succeeded, or nearly suc- 
ceeded, for a time. But the nobles always returned to the 
custom when the weakness of the Government gave them a 
chance of doing so, and in the end it became one of their ' 
chief rights. 

8. The Church. — As Germany had now been for some 
time nominally Christian, there were bishopricks and 
monasteries in all parts of the land. Among the chief 
monasteries were those of St. Galleii^ Ficlda^ and Coj'vcy, 
Tfie See of Mainz remained the head Church. Many lands 
had been given to the Church by Kings, Emperors, and 
rich nobles. These lands were not taxed. When held, 
however, by a feudal tenure, the holder had usually to aid 



44 THE LATER KARLINGS. [CH. vi.] 

his superior in war. Sometimes th€ Archbishops, Bishops, 
and Abbots even appeared in the field at the head of their 
vassals. The ecclesiastical lords were more numerous, and 
had more secular power, in Germany than in any other 
country. Some of the clergy were as rude and ignorant 
as the laity, but this was not usually the case. For cen- 
turies they were the only class that made any pretensions 
to learning, and as a rule they tried to soften the manners 
of the nobles, and to shield the weak and oppressed against 
the tyranny of the strong. 

9. The revenue of the King". — The King drew his revenue 
from the crown lands, which lay chiefly along the Rhine, 
and from customs, tolls, the right of coining, and other 
royal dues. He was not allowed to keep fiefs which he had 
held before being made King, nor could he add vacant fiefs 
to the crown lands. 

10. The Diet. — There were now very few meetings of the 
people in Germany. An Assembly or Diet, however, met 
the King at certain times to consult with him on the affairs 
of the State. Ordinary freemen no longer attended it. It 
was made up of the leading nobles, secular and spiritual. 
This Diet existed, in one form or another, till the German 
Kingdom was broken up. 

11. Literature. — The old heathen poetry treating of the 
famous deeds of heroes did not die out for a long time after 
Germany became Christian ; but poems on Christian sub- 
jects began also to be written. Of these the best was 
" Heliand,^^ a poem telling the story of the Gospels in a 
clear and forcible style. It is in a Low-Dutch dialect, and 
is said to have been written by a Saxon poet at the request 
o^ Lewis the Pious. 



CHAPTER VIL 

THE SAXON EMPERORS. 

Conrad of Franconia elected King; his army defeated by Henry oj 
Saxony ; his death (i) — He7iry I. elected {2) — He7iry I. defeats 
the Hungarians ; seizes Lotharingia ; his wars with the Duke 
of Bohernia, the Wends, and the Danes (3) — Hemy /, builds 
towns and fortresses (4) — death of Henjy /. (5) — election of 
Otto I. ; he puts doion a rebellion ; gives Duchies to members 
of his family (6) — wars with the Danes and Slaves [^)^first 
expedition into Italy ; Otto I. puts down a second rebellion (8) — 
defeat of the Hungarians (9) — Otto I. becomes King of Lombardy^ 
and Emperor [10)— effects of the connexion of Germany with 
the Empire [ii]— Otto IL crowned as Co-hnperator ; death of 
Otto L (12) — Provincial Palsg7'aves (i'^)— rebellion of Henry 
the Wrangler ; wa^-s of Otto II. ; his death (14) — 7uise rule of 
Theophano ; Austria given to Leopold I (15) — Otto III; his 
schemes; death {16)— war of Henry II. with the Duke of 
Poland ; his friendliness to the Chinrh {17) — the title of ^^ King 
of the Ro??ians^^ (18) — Fiirsten or Princes ; castles of the nobles ; 
private war (19) — growiiig pozver of the Church (20) — towns 
increase; the Patricians ; the Gilds (21) — Litei'ature and 
Art (22). 

1, Conrad I. — After the death of Lewis the Child the 
leading nobles met and elected Con7'ad of Franconia as 
King. Conrad was in every way well fitted for the throne ; 
but during nearly the whole of his reign he had to carry ,on 
wars with his great vassals, who disliked his attempts to 



46 THE SAXON EMPERORS. [chap. 

increase the royal authority. Henry ^ Duke of Saxony^ was 
his chief opponent. He defeated an army sent against him 
by Conrad. Conrad was more successful against two 
Counts who tried to become Dukes in Swabia ; he defeated 
them, and put them to death. He also defeated the Duke 
of Bavaria, and made him for a time seek refuge among 
the Hungarians. In 918, however, whilst carrying on war 
with the Bavarians, Conrad received a wound of which he 
soon afterwards died. Before his death he advised that 
the crown should be offered to his old enemy, Henry of 
Saxony, whom, of all living men, he saw to be the best 
fitted to succeed him. 

2. Henry I. — The nobles of Franconia met at Fritzlar^ 
and, carrying out the wishes of Conrad, elected Henry as 
his successor. Henry is usually called Henry the Fowler^ 
from a tradition that the messengers who brought him the 
news of his election found him among the Harz mountains 
with his falcons. The Saxons were of course very willing 
that their Duke should become King ; but the Dukes of 
Bavaria and Swabia opposed him. Within a short time, 
however, he was acknowledged by all ; and he soon proved 
himself the wisest and strongest King who had yet reigned 
in Germany. 

3. Wars of Henry I. — In Henry's time the Hungarians, 
who had made incursions under Conrad, began again to in- 
vade Germany. In 924 one of their princes fell into his 
hands. In return for this prisoner they granted him a 
truce for nine years, on condition that he should pay them 
tribute. When the truce was at an end, the Hungarians 
came back to Germany ; but Henry was now so well 
prepared for them that he thoroughly defeated them in a 
great battle, said to have been fought near Merseburg. 
After this the Hungarians kept in their own country while 
Henry lived. The Germans were so grateful to their King 



VII.] THE GROWTH OF TOWNS, 47 

for the victory he had gained that they greeted him as 
'' Imperator^^ and " Father of the Fatherland.'^ Before this 
battle Henr}^, taking advantage of the confusion in the 
Western kingdom, had seized Lotharingla^ and given it to 
a Duke who held it as a fxcf of the German crown. P^or 
centuries after his time Lotharingia remained part of the 
German kingdom. Henry had also had much fighting 
with the Slaves. He had forced the Duke of Bohemia to 
do homage for his Duchy, and had overthrown the Wejids^ 
whose country lay to the north-east of Germany. After the 
battle of Merseburg, Henry made war on the Danes ^ who 
had invaded Saxony and Friesland. He not only drove 
them back, but took possession of the lands between the 
Eider and the Schlei. 

4. Government of Henry I. The Growth of Towns. — 
Henry was a wise ruler as well as a brave defender of his 
kingdom. He introduced more orderly methods of fighting 
than the Germans had yet known, and, that they might be 
the better able to meet the Hungarians, trained the nobles 
and their vassals to fight on horseback. But he is chiefly 
famous as the founder of the burgher class. He saw how 
necessary it was, if the Germans were to be safe against 
such an enemy as the Hungarians, that there should be 
strong places in which they could take refuge if they were 
defeated. He therefore built walls round the towns which 
already existed, and founded new towns. He also built 
many fortresses, around which towns gradually grew up. 
Every ninth freeman was compelled to live in the nearest 
town or fortress as a defender and builder, while the re- 
maining eight maintained him, and laid up stores against 
time of need by giving a third of their produce. Henry 
decreed that all pu\)lic meetings and festivities should take 
place in towns, und provided for the administration of 
justice among the inhabitants. Thus encouraged, towns 



48 THE SAXON EMPERORS, [chap. 

grew quickly both during and after Henry's time ; and 
many freemen came and lived in them. A new class, that 
of burghers^ thus gradually arose in Germany. They were 
the great trading class of the country, and soon became the 
best friends of the Kings in their quarrels with the nobles. 

5. Death of Henry I. — When Henry had defeated all his 
enemies, he thought of going to Rome to claim the Imperial 
crown ; but he was never able to do so. In 935 he fell 
sick, and next year he died at Meinleben. Before his death 
he had summoned a Diet at Erfoi7^t^ and got the nobles to 
promise that they would recognize his son Otto as his 
successor. 

6. Otto I. — In accordance with the promise given to 
Henry by the nobles. Otto was elected and crowned King 
at Aachen in 936. He was twenty-four years of age when 
he began to reign, and had been married during his father^s 
life-time to Radgyth or Edith^ daughter of the English 
King Edward, and granddaughter of Alfred. Henry had 
added so much to the kingly power that at Otto's corona- 
tion the Dukes for the first time performed the nominally 
menial offices of the royal household. The Duke of 
Lotharingia acted as cha7nberlai7i j the Duke of- Fraiicoiiia 
as carver J the Duke of Swabia as cup-bearer j and the 
Duke of Bavaria as master of the horse. In a short 
time, however, the Dukes of Franconia and Lotharingia 
joined Thankmar^ Otto's half-brother, in a rebellion against 
the young King. Thankmar was soon slain ; but his 
place was taken by the King's full brother Henry ^ who 
had always hankered after the crown. Otto fought bravely 
m defence of his rights, and he was at last victorious. The 
Dukes of Franconia and Lotharingia both fell, and Henry, 
after being several times forgiven, submitted. He received 
the Duchy of Bavaria, which fell vacant in 945 ; and he 
greatly distinguished himself by his attacks on the Hun- 



VII.] IFAJ^S OF OTTO L 49 

garians. Otto kept the Duchy of Franconia in his own 
hands, and gave that of Lotharingia to Count Conrad, who 
afterwards married Luitgard^ Otto's only daughter. When, 
\\\ 949, Duke Hermann of Swabia died, Otto's son Ludolj\ 
who had married Hermann's daughter, was appointed his 
successor. All the great Duchies were thus brought into 
the hands either of Otto himself or of members of his 
family, so that he became very powerful. He was by no 
means content to be a mere nominal King. The Dukes, 
although nearly related to him, knew, when doing homage 
for their Duchies, that he would insist on his rights to the 
uttermost, and that he had sufficient power to enforce them. 

7. Wars of Otto I. — Otto was not only strong at home ; 
he early made himself feared in other countries. He several 
times took part in the quarrels of the West Frankish King- 
dom, and helped his brother-in-law, King Lewis, against 
the Dukes of France and Normandy. The Danes won 
back for a time the territory which Henry the Fowler had 
conquered ; but Otto made war on them, compelled Harola 
Blue Tooth to become his man, and set up the Mark 
of Schleswig for the defence of the German border. The 
Duke of Poland had also to do homage for his Duchy. 
From this time, till the thirteenth century, Denmark and 
Poland were always looked on as fiefs of the German 
crown. Otto's Margraves, Herniafi7i Billiuig and Ge7'c^ 
long fought bravely against the Slaves, and won Slavonic 
land — the former along the shores of the Baltic, the latter 
betvv^een the Middle Elbe and the Oder. In all lands 
conquered by him. Otto was careful to plant German 
colonies. He also founded bishopricks, and used every 
means to make the people Christian. In 968 he founded 
the archbishoprick of Magdeburg. 

8. Otto I. in Italy. Rebellion in Germany.— In • 951 
an appeal was made to Otto on behalf of the beautiful 

D 



50 THE SAXON EMPERORS. [char 

Queen Adelheid, Avhom Berengar-^ the Lombard King, 
wished to marry his son Adalbert, Otto went to Italy, 
and as his wife Edith had died six years before, he married 
Queen Adelheid. He took the title of Kmg of tJu Lom- 
bards^ but afterwards confirmed Berengar in the possession 
of Lombardy as his vassal. Soon after this Otto's son 
Ludolf, Duke of Swabia, rebelled ; and he was joined by 
Conrad of Lotharingia, the Archbishop of Mainz, and 
other nobles. After much fighting the rebellion was at 
last put down. Otto gave the Duchy of Lotharingia to 
his brother, Bruno ^ Archbishop of Koln, and Swabia to 
Bur char d^ the son-in-law of Henry of Bavaria. Williain^ 
Otto's eldest son, having entered the Churchy w^as made 
Archbishop of Mainz. 

9. Defeat of the Hungarians. — Taking advantage of 
the troubled state of Germany, the Hungarians had again 
begun to invade the country. In 955 they entered Bavaria 
\\\ vast numbers. Otto had now put down LudolFs rebellion, 
and was able to turn his w^hole strength against the enemy. 
A great battle was fought on the banks of the Lech, near 
AtLgsburg, Otto encouraged his troops by taking direct 
part in the battle, and he was bravely seconded b}^ Conrad, 
who wished to wipe out the memory of his rebellion against 
his father-in-law. At last the Hungarians had to fly, and 
many thousands of them were slain. The victory was dearly 
bought, for Conrad and many other nobles fell. But the 
end was worth the sacrifice. By this victory Otto com- 
pleted the work which his father had begun. The Hun- 
garians now ceased to invade Germany, and till the 
thirteenth century their Kings were usually, at least in 
name, subject to the German Kings. 

10. Otto L becomes Emperor. — In 961 Otto's young 
son Otto was crowned King in Aachen. The elder Otto 
then went to Italy^ which had again fallen into confusion* 



VII.] GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE. 51 

During this second visit he caused himself to be crowned 
King of Lombardy, and on February 2, 962, he was crowned 
Roman Emperor by the Pope. His three immediate pre- 
decessors on the German throne had been neither Kings of 
Lombardy nor Emperors ; but from this time the German 
Kings claimed as their right both the Lombard and the 
Imperial crowns. Otto and his successors thought very 
little of their royal as compared with their Imperial title. 
They still remained German Kings ; but after their corona- 
tion at Rome they were usually thought and spoken of 
only as Emperors. An Emperor held a much higher 
position than a mere feudal Sovereign, and claimed from 
his subjects a more thorough submission. 

II. Effects of the connexion of Germany with the 
Empire. — The connexion of the German kingdom with 
the Empire had many important results in Germany. 
Up to Otto's time there had been very little truly national 
feeling among the Germans. They thought of them- 
selves as Franks, Saxons, Swabians, and so forth ; 
hardly at all as a united people. But when their Kings 
acquired the right to be crowned Roman Emperors they 
themselves became the Imperial race. They began, there- 
fore, to take pride in the common German name. A 
feeling of nationality was thus aroused, which never after- 
wards quite left the Germans even in their darkest periods. 
On the whole, however, Germany was not the better 
for its connexion with the Empire. By being Emperors 
the German Kings became involved in struggles with which 
their native kingdom had nothing to do. They thus 
wasted much German blood and treasure ; and they lost 
almost all real power. Whilst they were . absent, some- 
times for years at a time, carrying on distant wars, their 
great vassals at home ruled as sovereign princes within 
their dominions. When the Emperors returned, and tried 



52 THE SAXON EMPERORS, [chap. 

to assert their right as feudal King's, they too often found 
that they had spent nearly all their strength, and could do 
very little against a united and powerful aristocracy. Ger- 
many was thus kept from growing up, like France and 
England, into a firm monarchy, and was in the end divided 
into many practically independent small States. 

12. Coronation of Otto II. as Emperor. Death of 
Otto I. — The last years of Otto's life were spent almost 
wholly in Italy, where he exercised to the full his Imperial 
rights. In 967 King Otto was crowned Emperor, and from 
that time reigned as " Co-Imperator" with his father. 
He was married in 972 to Thcophano^ the daughter of the 
Eastern Emperor Nicephoriis. In the same year the elder 
Otto returned to Germany, where he died in 973. During 
his lifetime he had been called Otto the Great, and he 
deserved the title, for he began an important epoch in 
history and raised his country to a great height of splendour. 

13. Provincial Palsgraves. — One of the institutions of 
Otto which exercised considerable influence on the future 
of Germany was that of provincial Palsgraves. These officers 
managed the royal lands and dues, and dispensed justice 
in the name of the sovereign. They thus helped to deprive 
the Dukes of some of their importance. But they them- 
selves were sometimes unfaithful servants. In the troubled 
periods through which Germany afterwards passed they 
often seized the royal lands and established themselves 
as independent feudal lords. 

14. Otto II. — Otto II. was at the time of his father^s 
death nineteen years old. He had much of his father's 
decision of character ; but he did not live long enough to 
do all that he was capable of doing. He had not long 
reigned alone when Henry the Wrangler^ of Bavaria, 
son of the Henry who had so often rebelled against Otto I., 
revolted. The rebellion was soon put down, and Henry 



VII.] OTTO II. 53 

himself was imprisoned and deprived of his Duchy. King 
Harold of Denmark, and the Dukes of Bohemia and 
Poland, all tried to make themselves independent : but 
they were compelled, one after another, to submit. In 978, 
when Otto was in Aachen, Lothar^ the West Frankish 
King, suddenly tried to seize Lotharingia. Aachen was 
taken ; and Otto had just time to escape. A Diet was 
at once summoned, and the nobles willingly agreed to 
support Otto in winning back the Duchy. At the head 
of a considerable army he entered the West Frankish 
kingdom, and marched towards Paris. The Germans 
encamped on Mont7nart7^e, but as winter came on they 
had to return homic without having taken the city. In the 
end, hov/ever, Lothar gave up all claim to Lotharingia. 
In 980^ the Emperor, whose sympathies were always more 
Italian than German, went to Italy ; and he never returned. 
Having tried to conquer Southern Italy, he was defeated in 
982, and next year he died at Rome. Before his death he 
had summoned a Diet at Vero7ia^ where his infant son Otto 
had been elected his successor. The Wends had revolted 
during his absence, and destroyed several Episcopal Sees 
in the north. 

15. Regency of Theophano. — While Otto III. was a 
child, his mother Theophano acted as Regent. Henry of 
Bavaria having been set free at once took the field, and 
for a time he got possession of the young King's person. 
He would perhaps have seized the throne, but the chief 
nobles remained loyal. Willigis, a wheelwright's son who 
had risen to the position of Archbishop of Mainz, and the 
Dukes of Swabia, Saxony, and Bavaria, all opposed Henry's 
claims. At last, in 984, he gave Otto back to Theophano, 
and became so thoroughly reconciled to the dynasty that 
his Duchy was restored to him. During Theophano's 
administration, the frontiers, except in the north, were well 



54 THE SAXON EMPERORS, [chap. 

defended. She gave the Mark of Austria to Leopold L 
of the house of Babenberg. Leopold conquered a good 
deal of Hungarian territory, and peopled it with German 
colonists. From this time the house of Babenberg held 
the Austrian lands till the family died out in the thirteenth 
century. 

1 6. Otto III. — Otto had various tutors, but by far the 
most distinguished was Gerbert, the profoundest scholar 
and most ambitious thinker of his age. Under him the 
youthful King made so much progress that he was called 
The Wonder of the World. In 996, when he was scarcely 
sixteen, he went to Rome with an army drawn from all 
parts of Germany, and was crowned Emperor. Three 
years afterwards he raised Gerbert to the Papal See. The 
young Emperor was very little of a German. He was 
dreamy and imaginative, and early formed the idea of 
making Rome once more the centre of the world, with 
Germany as a mere province of the Empire. His vague 
schemes, however, were suddenly cut short by his death 
near Rome in 1002. In the year 1000, when in Aachen, 
he had opened the tomb of Charles the -Great, whose body, 
dressed in Imperial robes, still sat on its marble throne. 
Otto's body was, in accordance with his own request, 
carried to Aachen, and buried beside that of Charles. 

17. Henry H. — Henry ^ Duke of Bavaria, son of Henry 
the Wrangler, was nearest of kin to the Saxon dynasty. 
His claim to the throne was for some time disputed, but 
in 1003 he was generally acknowledged King. During the 
reigns of Otto II. and Otto III. the great nobles had been 
making themselves more independent, so that Henry had 
much difficulty in getting his authority recognized. He 
had also to put down rebellions in the States subject to 
Germany. Boles law Chrob^y^ Duke of Poland, had con- 
quered Bohemia and Silesia. For fourteen years war raged 



VIL] ''KING OF THE ROl\ANSy 55 

between Henry and this powerful vassal. In the end, 
Boleslaw had to give up Bohemia and Meissen, and to do 
homage to Henry ; but he was virtually independent, and 
after Henry's death he caused himself to be proclaimed 
King of Poland. In 1004 Henry had become King or 
Italy ; and in 10 14 he was crowned Emperor. He was 
a devoted friend of the Church, and treated it so generously 
that he was afterwards called " Saint." He died in 1024, 
and was buried in Ba7nberg^ where he had founded a 
bishoprick. 

18. The Title of ''King of the Romans."— Up to the 
time of Henry II. the German Kings were called "Kings 
of the East Franks" or "Kings of the Franks and Saxons." 
They did not become Emperors till they had been crowned 
at Rome. Henry II. did not venture any more than his 
predecessors t3 call himself Emperor until he had received 
the Imperial crown from the Pope ; but he was anxious 
to establish the principle that as German King he had 
the right of sovereignty over Rome. He therefore took 
the title of " King of the Romans." This afterwards became 
the recognized title of the German Kings before their coron- 
ation as Emperors. 

19. The Nobles. — The highest class of nobles were now 
called Filrsten or Princes. Henry II. had done his utmost 
to make this class submissive ; but he had only been partly 
successful. They were not for some time yet to become 
almost independent sovereigns ; but during the reigns of 
the Ottos, whose duties as Emperors had taken them so 
much out of Germany, they had already done something 
towards gaining this end. At the head of the secular 
princes were the Dukes ; after them came the Palsgraves 
and Margraves. Every prince and noble now lived in a 
castle or tower. These buildings were usually veiy cheer- 
less ; but they were strong, and it was chicliy to serve as 



56 THE SAXON EMPERORS. [chap. 

strongholds that they were built. -They were commonly 
built on some high hill or other site where they could not 
be easily reached, and where they commanded a good view 
of the neighbouring country. The custom of private war- 
fare was now very common ; and for centuries after this 
time it was a source of great suffering to all classes. 

20. The Church. — The connexion of Germany with the 
Empire had added very greatly to the power of the Church, 
for the Emperor was its secular head, and felt himself 
bound to support and strengthen it. It now possessed 
about half the land of Germany; and the great prelates 
held princely rank. There were six archbishopricks — those 
oi Mainz ^ Koln^ Trier^ Bremen^ Magdeburg^ and Salzburg, 
The Archbishop of Mainz, as Primate of Germany, was 
the first spiritual prince ; next in rank to him were the 
Archbishops of Koln and Trier. The Saxon Emperors, 
in adding to the power of the Church, doubtless wished, 
like Charles the Great, to lessen that of the aristocracy. 
But in the end the spiritual princes proved as dangerous as 
the secular princes. In the struggle which at a later time 
arose between the Empire and the Papacy, they rarely 
hesitated to side with the Papacy. 

21. The Towns. — Many towns had been built since the 
time of Henry the Fowler. They grew up chiefly around 
cathedrals, monasteries, fortresses, and the castles of great 
nobles. They were divided into two classes — those which 
were immediately dependant on the crown, and those 
which were dependant on some mediate lord. In each town 
there was a Burgrave or Bailiffs who represented the King 
or other lord of the tov/n, and administered justice. The 
old families of the towns kept themselves apart from the 
new-comers, and were afterwards called Patricians. In 
some towns this class was soon allowed to choose coun- 
cillors who helped the Bailiffs in their duties ; and in the 



VII.] LITERATURE AND ART. 57 

end they tried, especially in the immediate towns, to get rid 
of the Bailiffs altogether. The tradespeople formed them- 
selves into Gilds, which at first had nothing to do with 
politics, but afterwards became of great political impor- 
tance. 

22. Literature and Art. — In the time of Otto I., Arch- 
bishop Briuio founded a famous school in Koln ; and 
Hi'oswitha^ perhaps a relative of the royal house, wrote 
in the nunnery of Gandersheim well-known comedies in the 
style of Terence. Otto II. and Otto III., partly through 
the influence of Adelheid and Theophano, did a good 
deal to encourage learning. They founded schools, and 
got famous scholars, like Gerbert, to come and stay at 
their court. But Latin, not German, was the language in 
which all works of importance were written. The Saxon 
Kings built many churches, chiefly in the so-called 
Romanesque style ; and sculpture, painting, and music 
were zealously cultivated in the service of the Church. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. 

Election of Count Conrad (i) — good government of Conrad II. (2) 
— Conrad II cy-ozvned ICing of Burgtmdy (3) — rebellion of Duke 
Ernst of Swabia (4) — -wars of Conrad II (5) — all fefs made 
keredita7y ; death of Conrad II (6) — strong government of 
Hen7y III; he prodai77is a geiteral peace, and encourages 
learning (7) — ivars of Henry III (8) — Henry III and the. 
Papacy ; his death {O))— weak government of Agnes (10) — Henry 
IV. falls into the hands first of Hajino, Archbishop of Koln, and 
afte7'wards of Adalbert, Archbishop of Bre^nen (ll) — Henry IV. ' 
irritates the Saxons (12) — Bertha, Henry IV.'' s Queen (13) — 
the Saxons rebel ; are for a tijue triumphant; defeated (14) — 
Henry IV. and Gregory VII. (15) — H^niy IV. humbled by 
Gj'egory VII. (16) — -Rudolf of Swabia elected King ; Gregory 
VII. sides with hi7n ; Rudolf slain ; his Duchy given to 
Frede7'ick of Bilren (17) — 7'ival Kings ; sub77iissio7i of the 
Saxo7ts (18) — rebellio7i of Hen7y IV.' s so7is ; his death (19) — - 
He7i7y V. a7td the Papacy ; rebellio7i ; the Co7tco7'dat of Wo7'77is ; 
death of Hen7y V. (20) — King lotliar ; sub77iission to the Pope ; 
He7i7y the Proud; death of Lothar (21) — loss of power by the 
Ge7'77ia7i Ki7igs (22) — growing i77iporta7ice of the loiver 7zobility (23) 
p7Hvate war ; the IVuce of God (24) — robbciy (25). 

I. Election of Count Conrad. — Lotharingia was now 
divided into two Duchies — Upper ^nd Lower; and Carinthia 
had been taken by Otto III. from Bavaria and made a separ- 
ate Duchy. There were thus at this time, if we take in the 



[CH. VIII.] CONRAD II. 59 

Duke of Bohemia, eight Dukes in Germany. These Dukes, 
and the Counts and Prelates of Germany, all accompanied 
by their vassals, now assembled on the banks of the Rhine, 
between Mainz .and Worms, to elect a new King. The 
choice of the Assembly fell on Count Co7irad, a Franconian 
nobleman, and cousin to the Duke of Franconia. The two 
cousins sprang from the Conrad who had married a daughter 
of Otto I., and were thus related through the female line to 
the Saxon dynasty. 

2. Government of Conrad II.- — Coii7'ad 11.^ who vras 
forty years old at the time of his election, proved a wise and 
firm ruler. Soon after his coronation he rode through the 
kingdom administering justice and severely punishing rob- 
bers. One of the chief objects of his reign was to increase 
the povrer of the crown by lessening that of the Dukes and 
other princes ; and in this he was very successful. He gave 
the Duchies of Bavaria, Swabia, and Carinthia, one after the 
other, in fief to his son Hejtry, who at an early period showed 
great strength of character, and gave promise of being able 
to carry out his father^s plans. The burgher class was es- 
pecially friendly to Conrad, for he favoured the cities, and 
did everything he could to make them look to the King as 
their natural protector against the nobles. 

3. The Kingdom of Burgundy. — Conrad was crowned 
Emperor in 1027. The year before he had been crowned 
King of Italy. At his coronation as Emperor two Kings 
were present — Rudolf III of Burgundy, and Cmit of 
England and Denmark. Conrad was on friendly terms 
with both of these Kings. His son Henry married Cnut's 
daughter, Ctmihiid ; and he gave up to Cnut the Mark of 
Schieswig. Rudolf, whose niece Gisela was Conrad's 
v/ife, appointed Conrad, as he had before appointed Henry 
II., to be his successor. When Rudolf died, in 1032, 
Conrad met with some resistance in Burgundy ; but he was 



6o THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [chap. 

crowned King, and was soon generally acknowledged. 
This kingdom did not take in the Duchy of Burgundy, 
which was a fief of the French King. After Conrad's time 
the German King had a right to the crown of Burgundy ; 
but owing to the weakness of later Kings the greater part of 
the country was in the end absorbed by France. 

4. Duke Ernst of Swabia. — Duke Ernst of Swabia, 
who was the son of Gisela by a former marriage, believed 
himself to be King Rudolfs lawful heir. When, therefore, 
Rudolf made Conrad his heir, Ernst thought himself 
wronged, and tried to raise a rebellion. But his vassals 
refused to follow him against their King and Emperor, so 
that his attempt failed. Conrad took his Duchy from him, 
and imprisoned him in a castle in Thuringia. He was after- 
wards set free" ; and Conrad offered to give him back his 
Duchy if he would tell where Count Werner^ who had 
helped him in trying to stir up a rebellion, was hiding. 
Ernst generously refused to do this. He afterwards joined 
Count Werner in the Black Forest, where the two nobles 
lived for some time by robbery. In 1030 both were 
killed in battle. The adventures of Duke Ernst roused a 
great deal of popular sympathy, and afterwards became the 
subject of many songs and legends. 

5. Wars of Conrad II. — Conrad carried on many wars, 
and always bravely. The Duke of Bohemia several times 
rebelled, but he was forced to return to his allegiance. The 
Poles invaded Germany, but were driven back ; and King 
Miesko had to do homage for his crovv^n, and to give up 
Lttsatia^ which Boleslaw had received from Henry II. 
Conrad also caused the Slaves on the banks of the Oder 
and the Lower Elbe to submit. He had more trouble with 
Kin^ Stephen hi Hungary; but in 103 1 Conrad's son 
Henry made even this powerful King accept peace. 

6. Edict of Conrad II. His Death. — Conrad visited 



VIII.] HENRY IIL 6l 

Italy a second time in 1037. It was during this visit 
that he issued the famous Edict^ in which he decreed that 
fief-holders should not have their lands taken from them- 
except by the judgment of their peers. All fiefs were thus 
made hereditary. The edict was meant to strengthen the 
lower vassals, and to make them feel that they owed a 
higher allegiance to the King than to their immediate lords. 
It applied at first only to Lombardy ; but it very soon 
became law also in Germany. Two years after this visit to 
Italy Conrad died, and was buried at Speyer^ whose fine 
cathedral he had founded. 

.7. Henry III. — Hejiry IIL^ Conrad's son, had already 
been crowned German King and King of Burgundy. He 
was now twenty-two years of age, and had many of the 
best qualities of a King. He continued his father's policy 
towards the great princes and the lower vassals, and 
became probably the strongest ruler since Charles the 
Great. The Duchies of Bavaria, Swabia, and Carinthia, 
which he had received from his father, he gave to princes 
who were content to act in all respects as the King's 
men. The Duchy of Upper Lotharingia having become 
vacant, Henry gave it also to one on whose obedience he 
could depend. Gottfried, the Duke of Lower Lotharingia, 
opposed this appointment ; but he was overcome, and had 
to retire to Italy. Henry did not use his great power for 
selfish ends. In 1043 he proclaimed a General Peace 
throughout the kingdom, and succeeded, as no King did 
for centuries after his time, in putting down private war. 
He also encouraged learning, and reformed the abuses of 
the Church, trying to make it in every way more worthy 
of its great work. 

8. The Hungarians. — Henry had to put down rebellions 
in Bohemia and Burgundy ; but his chief wars were those 
carried on by him against the Hungarians. He defeated 



62 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS, [chap. 

them in 1044, and forced them to recognize King Pete?'^ who 
had succeeded King Stephen, but had been deposed. Peter 
'did homage to Henry for his crown. A second expedition 
into Hungary was less successful ; but in 1057 Andreas^ 
who had in the meantime become King, was obliged to follow 
Peter's example, and become Henry's man. Henry took the 
country between the Kahlenberg and the Leitha^ and added 
it to the Mark of Austria. 

9. Henry III. and the Papacy. His death. — In 1046 
Henry was crowned Emperor by Cle7iient 11.^ a German 
whom he had made Pope after deposing the three rival 
Popes. He also took the old title of Patrician. As 
Emperor, Henry always treated the Pope as his dependant. 
He raised no fewer than four Germans, one after the other, 
to the Papal chair. Had he lived, he might have brought 
the Papacy still further under the Empire, as he would 
certainly have added to the power of the Crown in 
Germany. But this great Emperor died in 1056, when still 
a young man, and in the the fulness of his strength. 

10. Henry IV. Agnes. — At the time of his father^s 
death Henjy IV, was only six years old.' His mother Agnes 
became Regent. She was an amiable and devout lady, but 
without the strength necessary for her high position. Her 
weak government enabled the princes to win back much 
of the power which the last two kings had taken from them. 
Agnes made matters worse by giving several vacant Duchies 
to princes who were not friendly to her. She thus prepared 
trouble for her son when he should be old enough to rule in 
his own name. 

11. The youth of Henry IV. — Hanno^ Archbishop of 
Kobt^ was one of those who were most unfriendly to the 
reigning family. In 1062 he got possession of the young 
King, and forced Agnes to retire from the Regency. He 
then proposed that Henry should live at the courts of the 



VIII.] HENRY IV. AND THE SAXONS. 63 

Dukes, one after the other, and that the Bishop of the 
Diocese in which he happened to stay should be his 
guardian, and act as Regent. In reahty he hoped to keep the 
chief power of the kingdom in his own hands. There was, 
however, another powerful Prelate, Adalbe?'t, Archbishop of 
Breine7i^ who was jealous of Hanno. He had founded several 
bishopricks in Slavonic lands, and washed to become the 
strongest spiritual prince in Germany. He tried every 
means to take Henry from Hanno, and at last succeeded. 
Henry was very willing to change his guardian, for Hanno 
w^as a stern man, v/hile Adalbert was gay and good- 
humoured, and lived in splendid style. Unfortunately, 
Henry acquired under Adalbert's influence many low tastes, 
and became wayward and passionate. Above all, he was 
taught to look on the Dukes of the kingdom as his greatest 
enemies, and to dislike the Saxons. 

12, Henry IV. and the Saxons.^In 1065 Henry was 
declared to have reached his majority. He fixed his court 
at Goslar^ where his father had usually lived, and still 
looked on Adalbert as his best friend and adviser. He 
began his reign very badly, treating the Saxons with great 
harshness, and acting as if he intended to add their Duchy 
to the royal lands. In 1066 the princes compelled Adalbert 
to separate from him ; but Henry did not change his plans. 
He built forts in different parts of Saxony, making one near 
Goslar, called the Haj^zbttrg.^ especially strong. In 1069 
Adalbert returned to court, and encouraged the King in his 
tyranny, so that the Saxons became more and more discon- 
tented. 

13. Bertha, Henry IV.'s Queen. — Henry had been be- 
trothed by his father to Bertha^ daughter of the Margrave 
of Susa^ and had afterwards been compelled to marry her. 
He disliked her, and wished to be divorced. The' Arch- 
bishop of Mainz offered to help him to obtain a divorce if 



64 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS. [chap. 

he should compel the Thuringians-to pay tithes to the See 
of Mainz. Henry promised to do so, and thus made the 
Thuringians his enemies ; but the Pope would not grant a 
divorce. Bertha bore bravely the rudeness of her husband, 
and at last overcame him by her goodness, and proved his 
best helper during many trying years. 

14. Otto of Nordheim. War with the Saxons. — Agnes 
had made Otto of Nordheim^ a povv^erful Saxon Count, 
Duke of Bavaria. Henry unjustly took his Duchy from 
him, and gave it to Welf^ son of the Margrave Azzo 
of Este^ who had married a descendant of the ancient 
Bavarian house of Welf. Welf was a feeble prince, but 
became the founder of a powerful family. Otto entered 
into a conspiracy with Count Magnus^ son and heir of the 
Saxon Duke. Both w^ere overcome and imprisoned. Otto 
was soon set free, but Magnus, even after his father's death, 
was kept in close confinement. In 1073 a number of 
Saxon nobles suddenly appeared at Goslar and demanded 
that their young Duke should be given up to them. 
Henry, not knowing how strong was the feeling he had 
roused against himself, treated them contemptuously, and 
dismissed them. Almost immediately afterwards an army 
of 60,000 men marched on Goslar. Henry was taken 
by surprise, and fled to Harzburg ; but he soon felt him- 
self unsafe, and for three days wandered through the 
Harz mountains, accompanied by only a few faithful 
followers. When at last he reached Tribur, he summoned 
his great vassals to his aid against the rebellious Saxons. 
It was now that he felt how ill-advised his past conduct 
had been. The burghers of Worms, against the will of 
their Bishop, opened their gates to him, and offered to help 
him ; but they, and the citizens of some other towns, were 
atoost his only friends. The Saxons were thus free to 
do what they pleased ; and they allowed their revenge to 



VIII.] HENRY IV. AND GREGORY VII. 65 

carry them too far. They not only freed their Duke, and 
destroyed the fortresses built by Henry ; they plundered and 
burned churches, and dug up and brutally insulted the 
remains of a brother and child of Henry. This conduct 
shocked even the King's enemies, so that he was soon able 
to gather a large army. A battle was fought near La7igen- 
saha in 1075. Many fell on both sides ; but at last the 
Saxons had to fly. Promises were m.ade to them in Henry's 
name which led them to submit ; but Henry did not keep 
his word. He took the lands of many nobles, and gave 
them in fief to vassals of his own. He also caused the 
fortresses to be built again. Otto of Nordheim, his bitterest 
enemy, was the only noble whom he treated generously. 
He not only restored this prince to his Saxon lands, but 
made him administrator of the Duchy. 

15. Henry IV. and Gregory VII. — Henry was now on 
the verge of a struggle far greater than that which, as he 
hoped, he had just ended. He had treated with contempt 
the famous decree of Pope Gregory VII. ^ condemning 
feudal investitures to the clergy. It was quite natural that 
he should do so, for if Gregory's wishes had been carried 
out, the spiritual princes would have owed allegiance to 
none save the Pope. Had Henry been a popular King, 
Gregory would probably not have dared to do anything 
against him. But Germany was deeply discontented. 
Saxony, although for the moment subdued, was eager to 
rebel ; and Rudolf of Swabia, Otto of Nordheim^ and a 
host of other enemies wished for nothing more than to 
see Henry humbled. Gregory resolved to take advantage 
of this state of things for his own ends. By overcoming 
Henry, he would not only settle the question of investitures ; 
he would establish beyond dispute the principle on which 
he so earnestly insisted, that the Pope, as the viceroy of God, 
was above all earthly rulers — the Emperor, and the King who 

E 



66 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS, [chaf. 

claimed the right to be crowned Ernperor, not less than 
other sovereigns. In 1075, therefore, Gregory summoned 
Henry to appear before him at Rome to answer to charges 
brought against him by the Saxons and others. Henry 
looked on this as priestly arrogance, and, at a Synod 
of German Bishops held at Worms early in the following 
year, caused Gregory to be deposed. The Pope replied not 
only by excommunicating Henry, but by declaring him no 
longer King, and by absolving his subjects from their oath 
of allegiance to him. Henry was not prepared for the result. 
Some remained true to him , but his enemies openly accepted 
the Papal sentence, and such was the power of the Church 
that large numbers whom mere secular disputes might not 
have separated from him now either wavered in their 
loyalty or left him altogether. The whole German nation 
was at once divided into two hostile parties. The struggle 
which thus arose was to prove the bitterest and most pro- 
longed of the Middle Ages, for it was to be a struggle of the 
two greatest powers on earth, the Papacy and the Empire 
for supremacy. The details of the struggle belong only in 
part to German history. 

16. Henry IV. humbled by Gregory VII.^-The first 
step of the princes opposed to Henry was to summon an 
Assembly for the purpose of electing a new King. The 
Assembly met at Tribur. Henry now saw the danger of 
his position, and tried hard to influence the Assembly in his 
favour. The princes at last agreed that the affairs of the 
kingdom should be laid before the Pope at Augsburg during 
the next festival of the Purification. If at the end of a year 
Henry remained excommunicate he was no longer to be 
looked on as King. The princes did not really wish Henry 
to be reconciled to the Pope ; but he himself felt that this 
was the only way in which he could now save his throne. 
He accordingly resolved to go and see Gregory. The 



VIII.] HENRY IV. AND RUDOLF OF SWABIA, 67 

winter of 1076-7 was an unusually severe one ; but Henry, 
accompanied by his faithful wife Bertha and their infant 
son, started secretly for Italy. In crossing the Alps they 
met with great- difficulties ; but at length, aided by hired 
guides, they safely reached Lombardy. Although Henry 
was warmly received by many Lombard nobles and prelates, 
he hastened to the castle of Caiiossa^ whither Gregoiy had 
gone on hearing of his arrival. Henry had to stand three 
days, bare-headed and meanly clad, in the inner court of 
the castle, exposed to the bitter cold, waiting till Gregory 
should consent to see him. When at last he was admitted, 
the sentence of excommunication was removed ; but he had 
to promise that Gregory should be allowed to settle the 
difficulties of the German kingdom, and that meanwhile he 
himself should not take again his position as King. 

17. Henry IV. and Rudolf of Sv^abia. Frederick of 
Biiren. — The discontented German nobles met at Forchheim 
in March, 1077, formally proclaimed their right to choose 
a new sovereign, and elected Rudolfs Duke of Swabia^ as 
King. Henry hastened home, and was joined by a large 
party, the cities proving especially loyal friends. Rudolf 
was driven from Swabia, and took refuge among the Saxons, 
who, headed by Otto of Nordheim, bravely supported him. 
For a time Pope Gregory decidedly took part with neither 
side, but at length, in 1080, he recognized Rudolf, and once 
more excommunicated Henry. Henry replied as before, 
by summoning a council of German prelates, who deposed 
Gregory, and recognized the Archbishop of Ravenna, under 
the name of Clement I 11.^ as Pope. In the same year 
Henry lost a battle near Zeitz ; but the victory of the enemy 
was only in name, for Rudolf himself was killed. 71ic 
Duchy of Swabia had some time before been given to 
Frederick of Bure?i^ a nobleman who had built his castic on 
the hill of Staufeii^ in what is now the kingdom of Wilrlor,- 



68 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS, [chap. 



ber'g. Frederick at the same time married Henry's daughter, 
Ag7ies. He was thus the founder of the great Hohenstaiifen 
family, under whose rule Germany and the Empire were to 
rise to their highest fame and splendour. 

1 8. Submission of the Saxons. — After Rudolfs death 
Henry's cause quickly gained ground. In 1081 he felt him- 
self strong enough to leave the conduct of the war in 
Germany in the hands of Frederick of Swabia, whilst he 
himself went to Italy. He was crowned Emperor at Rome 
by Clement III., and in 1085 returned to Germany, having 
amply revenged the humiliation of Canossa. Meanwhile, 
the Saxons had recognized Her7nan7t of Luxemburg as their 
King, but in 1087 he resigned the crown ; and another 
claimant, Eckbert^ Margrave of Meissen^ was murdered. 
The Saxons were now thoroughly weary of strife, and as 
years and bitter experience had softened the character of 
Henry, they were the more willing to return to their 
allegiance. Peace was therefore, for a time, restored in 
Germany. 

19. Rebellion of Henry IV.'s Sons. His death.— The 
Papacy did not forgive Henry. He- was excommuni- 
cated several times, and in 1091 his son Conrad ^2,% excited 
to rebel against him. In 11 04 a more serious rebellion was 
headed by the Emperor's second son Henry ^ who had been 
crowned King, on promising not to seize the government 
during his father's lifetime, in 1099. The Emperor was 
treated very cruelly, and had to sign his own abdication at 
Ingelheim in 1105. A last effort w^as made on his behalf 
by the Duke of Lotharingia ; but, worn out by his sorrows 
and struggles, Henry died in August, 1106. His body lay 
in a stone coffin in an unconsecrated chapel at Speyer for 
five years. Not till nil, when the sentence of excom- 
munication was removed, was it properly buried. 

20. Henry V. The Concordat of Worms. — Henry V. 



viiL] HEXRY V, 69 

was not so obedient to the Church as the Papal party 
had hoped. He stoutly maintained the very point which 
had brought so much trouble on his father. The right of 
investiture, he 'declared, had always belonged to his prede- 
cessors, and he was not to give up what they had handed 
on to him. In mo he went to Rome, accompanied by 
a large army. Next year Pope Paschal II. was forced to 
crown him Emperor ; but as soon as the Germans had 
crossed the Alps again Paschal renewed all his old 
demands. The struggle soon spread to Germany. The 
Emperor was excommunicated ; and the discontented 
princes, as eager as ever to break the royal power, sided 
with the Pope against him. Peace was not restored till 
1 122, when Calixtus II. was Pope. In that year, in a Diet 
held at Worms, both parties agreed to a compromise, 
called the Concordat of Woi'ins. The advantage decidedly 
rested with the Papacy. The Prelates were still to " do 
homage for their lands ; but the Emperor renounced the 
investiture with ring and staff, and agreed that Bishops 
and Abbots should henceforth be elected by the clergy. 
The Church was thus made to a large extent independent 
of the crown. During the remaining three years of his 
life Henry was at peace with the Church ; but he had to 
fight constantly with rebellious nobles. Frederick of 
Swabia had been succeeded by his son Ff^ederick; and a 
second son, Cojirad, had been made Duke of Franconia. 
The Emperor had given his sister Agnes, the first 
Frederick's wife, in marriage to Leopold^ Margrave of 
Austria. He had thus secured powerful friends in the 
south of Germany ; but in the north he never thoroughly 
established his authority. He died at Utrecht in 1125. 
He had no children, and was therefore the last of the 
Franconian dynasty. 

21. Lothar of Saxony. — The nobles once more assemb ed 



70 THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS, [chap. 

with their vassals near Mainz, to elect a new King. Ten 
princes from each of the four leading Duchies, Franconia, 
Saxony, Swabia, and Bavaria, met in Mainz, and chose 
Lotkar, Diike of Saxoiiy. Lothar was opposed by the 
Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick and Conrad. In order 
to put them down he submitted as no German King 
had before done to the Papal See. Pope Innocent II. 
even claimed that Lothar, when being crowned Emperor, 
in 1 1 33, became the Pope's man. Lothar's faithful ally 
in this war with the Hohenstaufen was Hejiry the Pj'oud^ 
Duke of Bavaria, of the house of Welf This Duke 
married the Emperor's daughter, held the Italian lands of 
the Coimtess Mathilda^ and also became Duke of Saxony. 
He was therefore as powerful as Lothar himself In 1134 
Frederick of Swabia yielded to Lothar ; and his example 
was soon followed by his brother Conrad. Three years 
afterwards Lothar died in a peasant's hut in the Tyrol on. 
his way back from Italy. 

22. Loss of power by the German Kings. — The Ger- 
man Kings were now far from being what they had been in 
the time of the Ottos and of Henry III. The princes were 
of course still the men of the King, but they had taken 
every opportunity to seize royal rights, and they had many 
opportunities during the wars of Henry IV. and his suc- 
cessors. A new and strong dynasty was about to arise ; 
but in the end the far-reaching ambition of the Hohenstaufen 
family was itself one of the means by which the great feudal 
lords became practically independent of the crown and of 
all other earthly power. 

23. The Lower nobility. — When all fiefs became 
hereditary, the vassals of the great nobles rose very much 
in importance. They sometimes even refused to follow 
their lord into the field, as the vassals of Duke Ernst did 
when he wished to lead them against Conrad II. This 



viiL] PRIVATE WARFARE. 71 

class also came to be looked on as noble ; but no one could 
inherit land held immediately of the crown unless both his 
parents belonged to the higher aristoci*acy- 

24. Private Warfare. — We have seen that Henry III. pro- 
claimed a Genei-al Peace, in the disturbed time which 
followed his death this was soon set aside. The nobles might 
lay their disputes before the Diet or a special court of their 
peers ; but they more usually appealed to arms. All that can 
be said for them is that when there was no strong Government 
the weaker side in any quarrel could seldom obtain full justice. 
The Church continued to fight against a custom which did 
so much harm, especially to the common folk. In the 
eleventh century some Bishops in Burgundy proclaimed 
what was called The Truce of God, an ecclesiastical law 
which required all private warfare to stop every week from 
sunset on Wednesday till sunrise on Monday. This law- 
was gradually brought into Germany, and, although it 
was not always observed, it did at least something to 
lessen the evils of private war. Afterwards the spiritual 
and secular princes of certain districts sometimes united 
and bound themselves by oath to keep the peace for some 
stated tim.e. This also did something to prepare the way 
for the time when private warfare should altogether cease. 

25. Robbery. — Private warfare was not the only public 
evil from which Germany sutfered ; for many centuries 
robbeiy was also common all over the kingdom. The petty 
nobles often almost lived by robbery. It was always one of 
the chief aims of good Kings to punish robbers ; and princes 
who cared for the prosperity of their vassals and subject 
towns also tried to put down the evil within their lands. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS. 

Conrad of Franconia elected King; he takes Saxony and Bavaria 
from Henry the Proud (i) — war between Conrad and Henry ; 
Saxony given to Henry's son ; Albert the Bear (2) — Count Welf 
continues the war ; his defeat (3) — the Welfs and Waiblings (4) 
— Conrad III. joins the Second Crusade ; his return and 
death (5) — election of Frederick I,; he gives Bavaria to Henry 
the Lion, and makes Austria a Duchy (6) — wars of Frederick I, 
in Italy (7) — Frederick /, and his subject States ; crowned King 
of Burgu7idy (8) — wise gover^iment of Frederick I. (9) — Frederick 

I. takes Bavaria and Saxony fro7?i Henry the Lion (10) — Henry 
the Lion submits (ll) — Frederick I. joins the Third Crusade ; 
his death (12) — the King of the Romaizs (13) — He^iry VL makes 
peace with Heiiry the Lion (14) — Henry VI, aiid th^ kingdom 
of Sicily (15) — Henry VI. and Richard I. of F^zgland {16) — 
Ileitry VI, tries to 7nake the crown heredita7y ; his death (17) — 
Ki?tgs Philip and Otto (18) — Otto excouimttnicated ; Frederick 

II. made King (19) — character of Fi^ederick II. {20) — absence 
of Frederick If. fr 0171 Gei^many (21) — rebellion of Frederick 11.^ s 
soft Hejzry (22) — Frederick II. mar^'ies Isabella , sister of Henry 

III. ; holds a Diet at Maiitz (23) — the Moguls diiven back 
fi'om Silesia (24) — Frederick II. aiid Pope In^iocent IV, (25) — 
election of 7'ival Kitigs ; death of Frederick II. and Conrad 

IV. (26) — conquest of Slavonic lands (27) — fzcrther loss offoiver 
by the Gerzna^i Kings (28) — the Seven Electors (29) — the Germazi 
Kifigs and the Pope (30) — increase of immediate nobles (32) — 
leadi^ig jtoble houses (32) — laws of inheritance (33) — institution 



[CH. IX.] CONRAD III, 73 

of knighthood (34) — the tozutis (35) — leagues of towns ; the 
Hansa (36) — the freeing of serfs (37) — th£ '^ SachsenspiegeV^ 
and ^^ SchwabenspiegeV (38) — the Femgerichte {'}^<^] — Archr- 
tecture and Lite7'ature (40). 

1. Conrad III. takes Saxony and Bavaria from Henry 
the Proud. — Henry the Proud hoped to be made Lothar's 
successor; but he was disappomted. In 1 138, the princes 
friendly to the Hohenstaufen met at Coblentz and elected 
Conrad of Franconia as King. Conrad, wishing to lessen 
the power of Henr}'^ the Proud, ordered him to give up 
Saxony, on the ground that it was unlawful for one prince 
to hold two Duchies. When Henry refused, both his 
Duchies were taken from him. Conrad gave Bavaria to 
Leopold^ Margrave of Austria, and Saxony to Albert the 
Bear, who had received from King Lothar the Northern 
Mark of Saxony. 

2. Saxony given back to Henry^s Son. Albert the 
Bear. — War now broke out between Conrad and Henry the 
Proud. As usual, the cities were the best friends of the 
King. They were all the more friendly to him because 
the opposite party looked to the Pope for help, and the 
cities knew from experience how much harm might come of 
Papal interfererpce. Henry the Proud soon died, and left a 
young son, afterwards known as Hen7y the Lion. Conrad, 
wishing to bring back peace, made Albert the Bear give up 
the Duchy of Saxony to Henry, and rewarded him by 
separating his Mark from Saxony, and making it im- 
mediate. After this Albert steadily pushed his conquests 
among the Wends, and seized the town of Brande7tburg^ 
which gave its name to his Mark. In his time w^e first 
hear of Berlin. 

3. Count Welf. The women of Weinsberg*.— G?//;// 
Welf Henry the Proud's brother, continued the war in 



74 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chap. 

Bavaria ; but in 1140 he was defeated. He took refuge in 
Weinsbergj which had long been besieged in vain, but now 
yielded. There is a story that Conrad agreed that the 
women of Weinsberg might leave the town before he should 
destroy it, and take with them whatever they chose to 
carry ; and that next morning, when the gates were opened. 
a long line of women stumbled out, each carrying her 
husband or lover on her back. Conrad, the story says, was 
so touched by this that he not only let the women and the 
men they took with them escape, but spared the whole city. 

4. The Welfs and Waiblings, — ^It was during the siege 
of Weinsberg that the followers of Conrad adopted as their 
war-cry Waiblingen^ the name of a village where Eyederick^ 
Duke of Swabia, Conrad's brother, had been brought up. 
The rebels shouted Welf^ the name of their leader. 
These war-cries, v/hich the Italians corrupted into Guelt 
and Ghibelin became the names of the two great parties 
Vvhich divided the Empire. The Welfs sided with the 
Popes against the Emperors ; the Waiblings supported 
the Emperors against the Popes. 

5. The Second Crusade. Death of Conrad III. — Ger- 
many had been too m^uch taken up with her own . affairs in 
the time of Henry IV. to take any great part in the First 
C?'usade. But in 1147 Conrad joined the 'Second Cntsade 
with an army of 70,000 men. He was accompanied by 
his nephew Frederick oi Swabia, his old enemy IVelf and 
many other princes. Conrad shewed great bravery during 
this Crusade ; but he gained nothing, and came home in 
two yearSj his health broken by anxiety and suffering. Before 
his death he had again to put dov/n a rebellion headed by 
Count Welf. As he was preparing to go to Italy to be crowned 
Emperor, he died at Bamberg in 1 152. 

6. Frederick I. Henry the Lion receives Bavaria. 
Austria made a Duchy. — Conrad had recommended that 



IX.] FREDERICK BARBAROSSA 75 

his nephew, Frederick^ should be made his successor ; and 
his advice was foilovred. The new King, afterwards called, 
from his red beard, F7^edcrtck Barbarossa^ was thirty-one 
years old at the lime of his coronation. He was a man of 
free and noble nature, but had a strong will, and could be 
stern and harsh in asserting what he looked on as his 
rights. He was the son of Henry the Proud's sister, and 
his cousin Henry the Lion was his personal friend, so that 
he was anxious to heal the differences between the Welfs 
and the Waibliiigs. With a view to this he gave Henry 
the Lion, who already held the Duchy of Saxony, the Duchy 
of Bavaria, and thus made him by far the most powerful 
prince in Germany. To make up to Henry, Margrave of 
Austria, for yielding Bavaria, Frederick took Austria from 
Bavaria, and made it a separate Duchy. The new Duchy 
was made hereditary in the female as well as in the male line. 

7. Frederick L and Italy. — Frederick went to Italy in 1 1 54, 
and was crowned King of Italy and Roman Emperor in the 
following year. This was the first of a series of expeditions 
made by Frederick to Italy, during Avhich he carried on his 
famous struggle with the Papacy and the Lombard cities. 
This contest took up the best part of his life, so that, although 
he was a great German King, the leading events of his reign 
belong to Italian rather than to German history. 

8. Subject States. Burgundy. — In the first year of his 
reign Frederick had made the King of Denmark do homage 
for his crown. The King of Poland, and King Geisa of 
Flungary, also became Frederick's men. Wladislaw^ Duke 
of Bohemia, was so faithful a vassal that Frederick raised 
his Duchy to the rank of a kingdom. Frederick married 
Beatrice^ heiress of the Free Coimty of Burgundy, and thus 
brought this part of the Burgundian kingdom to his own 
family. He was afterwards crowned King of Burgundy at 
Aries. 



76 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [^hap. 



9. Home government of Frederick I. — Frederick was 
as strong at home as abroad. Even he could not put down 
private wars ; but he decreed that those about to begin such 
a war should give the enemy three day's notice. Those 
who did not do this were to be treated as robbers. Frederick 
also encouraged the cities, making some free, and giving 
others important privileges. The fame of his wars, and 
his good government, made him one of the most popular 
of German Kings. The struggle between the Empire 
and the Papacy had always hitherto stirred up strife in 
Germany ; and this was still more the case in the time of 
Frederick's successors. The Popes, however, found that, 
out of Italy, they had no means of harming Frederick. All 
parties in Germany raJlied round him. When a Papal 
legate declared in the Diet that the Empire was dependant 
on the Papacy, Frederick himself had to interfere to 
save the legate's life. Even the Prelates remained true 
to Frederick. Had they always been as loyal, the history 
of Germany might have been very different. 

10. Bavaria and Saxony taken from Henry the Lion. — 
Henry the Lion became more and more powerful. He 
founded new towns — among others, Munich — and helped 
those which already existed, such as Hajnburg and 
Lubeck^ to become rich and strong. He also took many 
lands from the Wends along the shores of the Baltic. His 
greatness roused the jealousy of the other princes, Avhom he 
often offended by his arrogant manner. Frederick would 
probably not have interfered with him if he had remained a 
true vassal ; but in 1 175, when the Emperor was in the very 
heat of his struggle with Lombardy, Henry, on whom he 
had refused to bestow the city of Goslar, suddenly left 
him, and went home with his followers. Frederick, who 
is said to have gone on his knees and besought the Duke 
to stay, could not forgive this, and in 1 178, when he returned 



IX.] HENRY THE LION. 77 



to Germany, two years after the battle of Legnano^ sum- 
moned Henry to appear before the Diet at Worms. Henry 
refused to come. In 11 So, therefore, Frederick put him 
to the ban of the Empire, and, with the sanction of the 
Diet, pronounced him to have forfeited all his lands. 
Some lands in the east of Saxony were given as a Duchy 
to Bernard of Anhalt^ son of Albert the Bear. Philips 
Archbishop of K'oln^ received part of the west of Saxony, 
and ducal rights in the lands granted to him. The Duchy 
of Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach^ a valued 
friend of Frederick ; but it was greatly weakened by the 
separation of Styria, 

11. Submission of Henry the Lion. — Henry did not 
quietly allow his lands to be taken from him. He fought 
bravely in their defence; but in 1181, feeling that his 
cause was hopeless, he came to Frederick at the Diet in 
Erfurt^ and humbly craved forgiveness. Frederick was 
touched by the humiliation of his old friend. He could not 
give Henry back his Duchies ; but he allowed him to keep 
Brunswick and Lime burg. Henry undertook to live for 
three years at the court of Henry IL, King of England, 
whose daughter he had married. During his stay in 
England, a son, Williain., was born to him, from whom the 
present royal family of England is descended. 

12. The Third Crusade. Death of Frederick I. — In 
1 1 89, when Frederick was an old man, he set out on a 
Third Crusade at the head of a large army ; but he did not 
again see the Holy Land. As his army was crossing the 
river Calicad?i2is^ in Cilicia^ in June, 11 90, he became im- 
patient at the delay caused by the blocking up of a bridge, 
and dashed into the river on horseback. The stream carried 
him away, and before help could reach him he was drowned. 
He was buried in Antiochj but a tradition afterwards arose 
that he slept with his knights in a cavern of the Kyffhduser 



78 THE HOHENSTA UFEN EMPERORS, [chap. 

Be7^gy in Thicriiigia^ and that, when the ravens should cease 
to fly around the mountain, he would awake and restore to 
Germany its ancient greatness. 

13. The King of the. Romans. — Frederick had his 
eldest son, Henry, chosen as his successor. In this he 
followed the example of several other Emperors ; but 
Henry was the first to take, during the life-time of the 
Emperor, the title of " King of the Romans." After him 
any one elected and crowned during an Emperor's life-time 
always took this title. In the end almost every Emperor 
tried to have his successor chosen while he himself still 
lived. The King of the Romans exercised no inde- 
pendent authority while the Emperor was alive ; but when 
the Emperor died a fresh election and coronation were not 
necessary. 

14. Henry VI. — Henry VI. had much of his fathers's 
strength of character, but he was harsh and cruel. At the 
time of Frederick's death he was fighting Henry the Lion, 
who had come back from England, and begun the old 
contest. King Henry at once made peace, and hurried to 
Italy to receive the Imperial crown.^ Henry the Lion's 
son afterwards married a niece of Frederick Barbarossa, so 
that there was peace for some time between the two houses. 

15. The Kingdom of Sicily. — A few years before his 
father's death Henry VI. had married Constance, heiress to 
the Kingdom of Sicily. One of the chief objects of his life, 
after he became Emperor, was to make himself thoroughly 
master of this kingdom. In trying to gain this end he was 
a great deal out of Germany, and sacrificed much blood and 
treasure. 

16. Henry VI. and Richard L of England. — In 1193 
Richard I. of England was given up to Henry by Leopold, 
Duke of Austria, who had seized the English King as he 
was passing through Austria on his way homcv/ards. Henry 



IX.] FREDERICK II, 79 

made Richard appear before the Diet, and refused to set 
him free until the EngHsh people had paid a great ransom. 

17. Henry VI. tries to make the crown hereditary. 
His death. — Henry was very anxious that the German 
crown should cease to be elective, and offered the princes 
many privileges if they would make it hereditary in his 
family. Some princes would have agreed to this proposal ; 
but the Saxons, many of the clergy, and afterwards the 
Pope objected, so that the schem.e had to be given up. 
In 1 197, Henry suddenly died in Sicily, in his thirty-second 
year. 

. 18. Kings Philip and Otto. — Henry VI. 's young son, 
Frederick,, had already been elected King of the Romans, 
but his claims were now set aside. The Waiblings,, or 
Hohenstaufen party, chose Philip,, Henry VI.'s brother, as 
King ; the Welfs elected Otto,, the second son of Henry the 
Lion. These rival Kings carried on war with each other for 
ten years, during which the country was in great confusion. 
Had they been left to themselves, Philip would probably 
have gained an easy victory ; but Otto was favoured by 
Pope Innocent III, and this greatly strengthened him. At 
last, in 1208, Philip was murdered by a private enemy ; and 
Otto was generally recognized as King. 

19. Frederick II. — Otto was crowned Emperor in 1209. 
But Pope Innocent was offended by his showing some signs 
of independence, and soon turned against him. Frederick, 
Henry VI. 's son, to whom, since the death of his mother, 
Innocent had acted as guardian, had now grown up in Sicily 
to be a youth of high promise. Innocent excommunicated 
Otto, and called upon the German princes to elect Frederick 
as his successor. Otto set out for Southern Italy to attack 
his new rival ; but as he learned on the way that the 

German princes had obeyed the Pope's command, he turned 
and hastened to Germany. Frederick also went to Gc:- 



8o THE HO HENS TA UEEN EMPER ORS, [chap. 



many, and was received with enthusiasm by the friends of 
his house. After this Otto gradually lost ground, and in the 
end he retired into private life. In 121 5 Frederick, sup- 
ported by the Pope, and by the great body of the German 
princes, was crowned King at Aachen. 

20. Character of Frederick II.— Frederick II. was per- 
sonally one of the greatest of the Emperors. He was so 
highly gifted that men called him The Wonder of the World, 
He knew many languages, was a man of science and a poet, 
and had ideas of government far beyond those of his own 
day. If he had lived in happier times he would have pro- 
foundly influenced the course of history. As it was, he did 
very little of lasting importance. His great powers were 
wasted in a long struggle with the Lombard cities and with 
the Papacy, which, although at first friendly to him, soon 
saw in him its most deadly enemy. 

21. Absence of Frederick II. from Germany.— In 1220 
Frederick went to Rome to be crowned Emperor, and he 
did not return for fifteen years. During that time he had 
very little directly to do with Germany ; his struggle with 
the Lombard cities, and with Pope Gregory IX. ^ his crusade 
for the deliverance of Jerusalem, and the many pleasures 
of his brilliant court, took up almost all his thoughts. Before 
he left Germany he persuaded the princes to elect his young 
son Henry King of the Romans. This child, under Engelbert^ 
Archbishop of Koln, was left as Regent in Germany. The 
nobles, who, during the struggle between Otto and Philip, 
had greately added to their power, took advantage of 
Frederick's long absence to establish their independence 
more fully. Private wars went on all over the country ; and 
robberies became once more common. 

22. Frederick IFs son Henry rebels. — Frederick's son 
Henry did not inherit his father's fine qualities. He was 
mean, rash, and violent. He resolved to seize the German 



rx.] DIET AT MAINZ. 8i 

throne, and openly declared his intention, in 1234, to the 
assembled princes at Boppart. Next year the Emperor 
came to Germany. Henry tried to poison him, but was 
found out, and sent as a prisoner to Apulia, 

23. Marriage of Frederick II. Diet at Mainz. — During 
this visit to Germany, Frederick married Isabella^ sister of 
Henry II L of England. There had never been such festivities 
in Germany as those which took place in Koln, where Fred- 
erick met the bride, and at Worms, where they were married. 
Some time after the wedding Frederick held a great Diet at 
Mainz, to which many princes and nobles came. At this 
Diet he decreed that private warfare should be unlawful except 
in cases where justice could not be obtained. He also 
established an hnperial tribunal^ made up of a judge with 
certain assessors, which was to decide all causes not affecting 
princes of the Empire. Frederick did not stay long enough 
in Germany to complete the work he had begun. In 1236 
he returned to Italy, and he never again visited Germany. 
His son Co7trad vf2LS left to fill the place which Henry had 
forfeited, 

24. The Moguls. — Shortly after this time Germany was 
threatened, by the Moguls^ vast hordes of whom had broken 
into Europe from Asia. In 1241 they were met in Silesia^ 
with a very inferior force, by He7iry of Lieg7iit2. The 
Silesians were almost all cut down, and Henry himself fell; 
but the Moguls had met with such stubborn resistance at 
the very borders of Germany that they gave up all thought 
of entering the country, and marched southwards to 
Hungary. 

25. Struggle of Frederick II. with the Pope. — Frederick 
found in Innoceiit IV. a foe more bitter and dangerous 
than even Gregory IX. had been. These Popes declared 
that Frederick was a heretic, and had sympathies with 
Mahometanism ; but the real causes of their hatred were, 

F 



8-2 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chaf. 



tliat he would not recognize the authority of the Pope as 
higher than that of the Emperor, and that his possession of 
the kingdom of Sicily, which had long been looked on as a 
fief of the Holy See, enabled him to attack the Papacy from 
the south as well as from the north. In 1245 Innocent IV, 
not only renewed the sentence of excommunication against 
Frederick, but solemnly declared him dethroned. This 
created great confusion in Germany. A party, now as 
always, sided with the Emperor ; but the spiritual princes 
joined the Pope, and they had the sympathy of all those 
nobles who wished to make use of the Emperor's difficulties 
for the purpose of adding to their own importance. 

26» Election of rival Kings. Death of Frederick II. 
and of Conrad IV. — The party in favour of the Pope met at 
Wiirzbiirg^ and elected as King Henry Raspe^ Landgrave 
of Thuri7igia. He was never fully acknowledged, and 
died in 1247. On his death the same clerical party again 
met, and declared Willimn of Holland^ a youth of twenty, 
his successor. William allied himself to the Welfic house, 
but in South Germany he was utterly powerless against the 
Emperor's son Conrad^ Meanwhile, the Imperial authority 
almost altogether broke down. The utmost disorder pre- 
vailed throughout the kingdom. The great nobles avenged 
their own wrongs, and robbery became so common that a 
man's person and property were safe only in so far as he 
was able to fight in his own defence. In 1250 the Emperor, 
whose attention had been given to the struggle for authority 
in Lombardy, died at Firenzuola. After his death the 
party which had clung to him recognized his son Cojirad 
IV. J but Conrad died in 1254. Conrad was the last Hohen- 
staufen King in Germany, 

27. Conquest of Slavonic lands. — The Germans had 
long been pushing their way eastwards. Besides taking 
possession of Brandenburg^ they had been slowly colonising 



IX. ] Z OSS OF PO WER B V THE GERMAN KINGS, 83 



Lower Silesia^ Holstein^ Meckle7ibitrg^ and Povicrania. 
About the beginning of the thirteenth centur}^ a monk 
named Christiaii began to preach in Prussia. The 
Prussians resisted him, whereupon a crusade was preached 
against them, and many warriors came to Christian's help. 
About 1230 the Knights of the Teutonic Order ^ under their 
Grand Master, Heruiann of Salza^ came to Prussia, and 
began to conquer it. Another Order, the Knights of the 
Sword^ had before conquered Livojiia, In 1237 this Order 
joined the Teutonic Knights. Konigsberg was founded 
in 1245, and received its name in honour of Ottocar, King 
of Bohemia, who took part in the crusade against Prussia. 
The larger part of Prussia was conquered by 1260, w^hen a 
great revolt took place. Many Germans settled in the land, 
and in 1309 the Order was established in its seat at 
Marienberg. Warriors came from all parts of Europe and 
joined the Order in fighting the Prussians. Its members 
were bound by vows like monastic orders ; but their 
manners were not improved by prosperity. 

28. Further loss of power by the German King's. — 
For a time it had seemed as if the German Kings w^ere once 
more to become strong rulers ; and if the Hohenstaufen 
dynasty had chosen to confine itself to Germany, it might 
have won back, and added to, the power of Charles the 
Great, of Otto the Great, and of Henry III. But, as we 
have seen, the Hohenstaufen Kings were almost constantly 
engaged in distant wars, brought about by their position as 
Emperors and Kings of Italy and (after Frederick I.'s 
time) of Sicily. \Vhile they were carrying on these wars, 
the German princes seized one royal right after another, 
and made themselves practically independent. Instead of 
winning back their rights, the Hohenstaufen Kings some- 
times gave them up in order to add to their strength at the 
moment. By two Pragmatic Sanctio7is Frederick II. con- 



84 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chap. 

firmed the princes in the rights they had seized ; the 
ecclesiastical princes in 1220, the secular princes in 1232. 
\Vhere he was present his authority was still to be over all ; 
but in his absence the princes were to be almost independent 
sovereigns within their towns and territories. The result of 
the weakness thus brought about was that the German 
Kings lost almost all their power abroad. Denmark^ 
Poland^ and Himgary ceased to owe them allegiance, and 
Burgu7idy began to fall, bit by bit, into the hands of France. 
29. The seven Electors. — As we have seen, the Kings 
were in early times elected by the whole body of freemen. 
When feudalism arose, this right passed into the hands of 
the nobles. If the power of the Kings had gone on increas- 
ing instead of becoming less and less, they would probably 
have made their crown hereditary ;' but their growing weak- 
ness enabled the nobles to hold fast the right of election. 
The Popes encouraged them to do so, for much of the Papal 
power would have been lost if any one family could have 
claimed the Imperial crown as a right. Besides, there was 
a general feeling that the position of Emperor was far too 
great and sacred to be entrusted to a single house. The 
fact that three successive dynasties failed of heirs male 
also helped to keep the crown from becoming hereditary. 
Although the German crown remained elective, the great 
body of the nobles soon lost their electoral rights. For a 
time the leading princes asked the aristocracy to approve 
their choice of a King, but in the end their choice was 
accepted as final. Those w^ho thus usurped the right of 
electing the King were called Electors. There were now 
seven Electors — three spiritual and four secular. The 
spiritual Electors were the Archbishops of Afainz, Kohi, 
and Trier. The Duke of Saxony (the small Duchy given 
by Frederick I. to Bernard, son of Albert the Bear), the 
Margrave of Brandeitburg^ the Rhenish Palsgrave^ and the 



IX,] THE ELECTORS. 



King of Bohemia, were the secular Electors. The three 
Archbishops were Arch-chancellors of Germany, of Gaul 
^nd Burgundy, and of Italy ; and each of the secular 
'Electors held one of the great offices of the Imperial house- 
hold. These offices were formerly held by the Dukes of 
Franconia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Lotharingia ; but when 
the Dukes were at the height of their poAver, the right of 
electing the King had no\ been seized by a few. The Duke 
of Bavaria would probably have been an Elector, but the 
house of Wittelsbach held also the Rhenish Palatinate, and 
it would have been dangerous if the electoral dignity had 
belonged to two members of one family. The right of 
choosing the King was the most important of all the rights 
gained by the leading feudal lords, for the Electors could 
keep strong men from the throne, and make those whom 
they appointed confirm them and their fellow-princes in 
their independence. The Electors were above all other 
princes, and formed a separate college in the Diet. 

30. The German Kings and the Pope. — In the time 
of the Ottos and the Hen?ys^ the German Kings, as Em- 
perors, confirmed, and even appointed, Popes. From the 
time of Innocent III. the Popes claimed the right to review 
the election of the German King, and to reject any one 
whom they did not think suitable. This was another 
humiliation brought upon the German kingdom by its con- 
nexion with the Empire. 

31. Increase of immediate nobles. — The Duchies now 
no longer played the great part in German history that they 
had once played. The Duchy of Franconia had ceased to 
exist ; and when Coiwadin., the son of Conrad IV., perished 
in 1268, Swabia also fell to pieces. The Duchy of Saxony, 
in the old sense, had never been restored after the fall of 
Henry the Lion. Upper Lotharingia still existed ; but the 
Duchy of Lower Lotharingia was more nominal than real. 



86 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chap. 

Bavaria had been made much less important by the separa- 
tion of Carinthia, Austria, and Styria. The result of these 
changes was that a great many of the lower order of noblts 
became immediate. That is, many who had held their 
lands of the Dukes now held them of the crown. This 
made robbery much more common than it had been, and 
added greatly to the number of private wars. 

32. Leading noble houses. — It may be well to mention 
some of the leading noble families who now, in immediate 
dependance on the crown, shared with the Church the 
greater part of the land of Germany. The small Saxon 
Duchy was divided into Lauenburg and Wittenbe^'g. 
These were held by two branches of Bernard's family, each 
of which thought it had the best right to the electoral 
dignity. To the north of Wittenberg was the powerful 
Margraviate of Brandenburg. The Dukes of Brunswick 
and Lilneburg^ . and the Counts of Oldenburg^ of Holstein^ 
and of Schwerin, all held what had once been Saxon land, 
and claimed to be immediate. Thuringia, which had for 
some time been joined to Saxony, but had been made a 
Margraviate, becam^e a Landgraviate in the time of the 
Hohenstaufen. The Landgraves pushed their way westwards 
till their territory took in Hessen as well as Thuringia. This 
was the extent of country ruled by Lewis IV. of Thur- 
ingia, husband of the famous St. Elizabeth of Hungary, 
In 1269 Thuringia was given in fief to Henry, Margrave of 
Meissen, the ancestor of the present royal family of Saxony ; 
v/hile Hessen fell to Henry oiBrabant, a grandson of Lewis 
IV. by the female line, from whom the later Landgraves of 
Hessen sprang. The Duchy of Bavaria was still held by 
the house of Wittelsbach, which had also received by 
marriage, in 1227, the Rhenish Palatinate. To the east of 
Bavaria were the three Duchies which had at different times 
been separated from it — Aust?'ia, Styria, and Carinthid> 



IX.] LEADING NOBLE HOUSES, 87 

Styria had been united to Austria in 1192. Frederick^ Xho, 
last Austrian Duke of the house of Babenberg, died in 1246. 
IJis death was followed by a time of great confusion in the 
Austrian lands? After much fighting with the Hungarians, 
Ottocar^ King of Bohemia, at last got possession of them 
for some time. The Counts of Wilrtemberg were among 
the greatest of the Swabian nobles. The house of Zdh- 
ringe?t, the founder of which Conrad 11. had placed over 
Burgundy, had been confined by Frederick I. to the Duchy 
of Lesser Burgundy^ to the east of the Jura. This house 
died out in the thirteenth century, and many of its lands fell 
to the Counts of Baden and the Counts of Habsbiirg. The 
Cownisoi Ho he ?t20 1 lern^ who held the position of Burgraves 
pf Nilrnberg^ were also powerful Swabian nobles, and re- 
ceived about this time certain Bavarian lands which after- 
wards became the Duchies of A7isbach 2i]\& Baireiilh. The 
Counts of Nassau may be named^among those who held 
ancient Franconian lands. The Duchy of Upper Lothar- 
ingia was held by the Counts of Els ass. The Dukes of 
Lower Lotharingia preferred to call themselves, after their 
hereditary possessions, Dukes of Brabant. Among the 
nobles in this part of Germany who claimed to be immediate 
were the Counts of Luxemburg^ Jillich^ Geldern^ Cleve, and 
Holland. 

33. Laws of Inheritance. — So long as a Duke or other 
prince was looked on as an officer of the crown, his lands 
were inherited by his eldest son ; but now the lands of most 
princes were divided equally among all the sons. The 
brothers sometimes lived together and shared the power, 
but they more commonly divided the lands. It thus often 
happened that there were a number of independent princi- 
palities, ruled over by members of one family. At first each 
brother obtained absolute possession of his share ; but as 
this greatly weakened the power of princely houses, it 



88 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chap. 

became common for the heirs of a prince to make arrange- 
ments which kept any part of the fief from falUng to the 
crown until the male line had wholly died out. In the end 
the custom of primogeniture was adopted by several great 
families — notably by the house which has become in our 
day the Imperial family of Germany. 

34. The institution of knighthood. — The institution of 
knighthood, which the Crusades had made so important, 
flourished in Germany in the time of the Hohenstaufen. It 
was open to the lower as well as to the higher nobles to 
become knights, so that the institution formed a bond of 
union between the two orders. The son of a nobleman 
usually served a knight for some years as page and esquire^ 
and was afterwards himself knighted, if possible by a nobl^ 
of high rank. Those who were to be made knights pre- 
pared themselves for the ceremony by religious exercises, 
and vowed to obey the King or Emperor, to uphold the 
right, to defend widows and orphans, and to oppose the 
infidels. Every knight had the right to confer the honour 
of knighthood. He could also take part in toitrnaniejtts^ 
which were often held at the courts of the Emperor and 
princes. Knights were supposed to hold women in high 
reverence. They were by no means always so pure as they 
are sometimes said to have been ; but in Germany, as else- 
where, they did much to foster a spirit of generosity, 
courtesy, and honour, at a time when these qualities were 
peculiarly valuable. 

35. The tov/ns. — The towns were now an element of 
great importance in Germany. Almost every great German 
town at present existing had been founded by the time of 
the Hohenstaufen. The Crusades had given a powerful 
impulse to trade, so that the burgher class generally had 
become very rich. When the Duchies ceased to exist or 
lost their old importance, many towns that had before been 



IX.] LEAGUES OF TOWNS. 89 

mediate became immediate. The immediate towns usually 
tried to get rid of the bailiffs who represented the crown ; 
and in the thirteenth century many of them succeeded in 
doing so, and, thus became Free Imperial Towjis^ still 
recognizing the supremacy of the King or Emperor, but 
ruling themselves according to their own ideas. When 
a town became free, a struggle very often arose between the 
old families or Patricians and the Gilds, and it usually 
ended by the Patricians having to yield to the Gilds some 
share in the government. The free imperial towns 
became far too powerful to be left out of the national 
council. In the end their deputies formed a third college 
in the Diet, and had an equal vote with the Electors and 
princes. 

36. Leagues of towns. The Hansa.^ — The free towns 
rarely quarrelled with the King ; but they were almost always 
at war with the nobles, both secular and spiritual. This led to 
their formuig Leagues or Confederations for mutual defence. 
Several of these Leagues became very powerful. The Rhenish 
League^ which was formed in the middle of the thirteenth 
century, took in no fewer than seventy towns. But of all 
the Leagues of cities, the LLansa v/as by far the strongest. 
It is thought by some to have arisen from a treaty made 
\y^\.\\^zxY Lilbeck and Hamburgh \vl i 241, for the protection 
of their commerce. Other northern towns soon joined 
them, and a League was formed called the ILanseatic 
League^ which in the end took in upwards of eighty cities. 
It was divided into four groups, of which the chief towns 
were Liibeck^ Koln^ Brunswick^ and Danzig. The Diet of 
the League met in Liibeck, which was looked on as the 
head town. When at its height the Hansa carried on the 
whole trade of the Baltic and had a principal share in that 
of the North Sea. It had fleets and armies, and often 
c:ot the better of the Northern Kinors. It even made itself 



90 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chap. 

respected by the more powerful Kings of France and 
England ; and for a time much of the export English trade 
was carried on by Hanseatic merchants. In England they 
were called Easterlings — whence the word Sterling, 

yj. The freeing of serfs. — About the time of the Hohen- 
staufen many serfs were made free. They were made so in 
various ways. Some received their freedom by joining the 
Crusades ; others obtained it from nobles who were about 
to set out for the Eloly Land ; while others fled from 
tyrannical lords, and found refuge in the cities. The cities 
willingly took them in, and made them citizens — either 
PfaJilbilrger^ citizens who took up their abode in the suburbs, 
within the palisades that enclosed the lands of the city, or 
Aiisbiirger^ citizens who lived outside the city, but could 
claim its protection. These Pfahlbiirger and Ausbiirger 
were a source of constant misunderstanding between the 
nobles and the towns. By and by the bet'er ciiss of nobles 
began to feel that it was more profitable, as. well as more 
Christian, to be served by freemen than by serfs ; but 
serfdom continued in some parts of Germany, especially the 
north, till quite recent times. 

38. The **Sachs8nspiegel" and ** Schwabenspiegel." — 
There was no one system of law in use all over Germany. 
The princes administered justice in accordance with local 
customs and traditions. Early in the thirteenth century a 
Saxon noble, Eike of Repgow^ brought together in one work 
the laws in use in Saxony. This work was called the 
Sachsenspiegel^ and was soon looked on as a code of high 
authority all over Germany. Later in the century a 
Swabian priest wrote the Schwabejispiegel^ which iid for 
the usages of Swabia what the Sachsenspiegel nad done 
for those of Saxony. Afterwards other collections were 
made in different parts of the kingdom. During the twelfth 
and thirteenth centuries the old Roman lav*^ was eagerly 



IX.] THE FEMGERICHTE, 91 

studied in the Italian Universities ; and at a later time it 
came into very general use in Germany. 

39. The Femgerichte. — There was a peculiar class of 
courts of justice in Westphalia, called Femgerichte. They 
sprang from the old courts of Counts which Charles the 
Great had first appointed in Saxony, and w^hich went on 
longer in Westphalia than elsewhere, because of the greater 
number who there continued to hold their lands by a free 
tenure. Towards the end of the twelfth century the Counts 
began to call themselves Freigrafe7i or Free Coimts; and 
the judges who with a Freigraf formed a court were called 
Freischdffe7i or Free Judges. As feudalism advanced, many 
Free Counties were brought under secular or spiritual 
princes. The princes, however, did not gain full power 
over them. They appointed the Free Counts ; but the 
latter received their authority from the King or Emperor, 
and dispensed justice in his name. The Femgerichte did 
not meet, as has often been said, at night and in caves or 
other hidden places. They met in open day, generally 
under some tree ; but the proceedings of the court were 
kept secret. No case was taken up which was not punish- 
able by death. If an accused person w^as condemned, he 
was hanged at once. Any one who did not appear after 
having been summoned three times was assumed to be 
guilty ; and sooner or later he was certainly put to death. In 
those lawless times the oppressed were glad to find a court 
anywhere which gave them some chance of obtaining 
justice. Appeals began, therefore, to be made to the Fem- 
gerichte from all parts of Germany. In the end men of free 
birth, to whatever part of the country they belonged, were 
allowed to become Freischoffen, and many thousands of all 
"classes availed themselves of the privilege. For a consider- 
able time the Femgerichte did real good, for nobles" who 
cared nothing for King or Emperor trembled when they 



92 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS. [chap. 

received the summons of some F-reigraf to appear at a 
certain date before a secret tribunal. But as the power 
of the Femgerichte increased, they were often reckless and 
unjust ; and many, especially the clergy, cried out loudly 
against them. They lost nearly all their power in the 
sixteenth century ; but traces of them long afterwards 
existed among the Westphalian peasantry. 

40. Architecture and Literature. — In spite of the wild 
lives of many nobles, the age of the Hohenstaufen was in 
some respects the most brilliant of the Middle Ages. Many 
churches were built in a new style of architecture called the 
pomted ox Gothic. Of these, the Cathedral of Koln, which 
is not even yet finished, was the most splendid. Poetry 
flourished as it had never before done in Germany. This 
was due partly to the influence of the Troubadours and 
Tro^tveres, The Crusades also stirred men's im.aginations 
by opening to them a new world of wonder and beauty. 
The poets were called Mimiesdnger or Love Singers. 
They wrote many romances, the favourite heroes of 
which, in Germany as well as in France and England, 
were Charles the Great and King Arthur with the Knights 
of the Round Table. Many lyrics were also written which 
are not only finely finished but show a true feeling for 
everything great and beautiful in nature and human life. 
Several of the Hohenstaufen Emperors and various princes 
were themselves poets. Among the most famous of the 
Minnesanger were Heinrich von Veldeck, who lived towards 
the end of the twelfth century and was one of the earliest of 
his class, Wolfra7n von Eschenbach, Gottfried von Strass- 
bzn^g^ and Walther von der Vogelweide. There were many 
legends of German heroes in different parts of Germany. 
These legends were kept alive in the minds of the people 
by wandering singers^ who long addressed themselves 
chiefly to the common folk, but were afterwards welcomed 



IX.] ARCHITECTURE AND LITER A TURK, 93 

to the castles of princes and nobles. Of the legends thus 
handed down from generation to generation some were put 
together about this time, and made into the great national 
epics of the Nibelujigeiilied and Gudrun. The age of the 
Hohenstaufen was thus one of the most remarkable epochs 
in the history of German literature. A more sordid time 
followed in which poetry almost altogether vanished. 



Cl^ AFTER X. 

SOVEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. 

Death of William of Holland ; election of Alfonso and Richard; 
the Inte7'7'egnum (i) — election of Rudolf of Habsburg {2) — wa^ 
between Rudolf and Otto car, King of Bohe77tia (3) — the House of 
Habsburg receives Austria (4) — good govern7ne7zt of Rudolf ; his 
death (5) — Ki7tg Adolf (6) — King Albert I. (7) — King He7i7y 
VII. ; his S071 foh/i beco77ies King of Bohe77iia (8) — He7i7y VII, 
crozvned E77iperor ; his death (9) — election of F7'ederick of 
Aust7'ia a7td Lewis of Bava7ia ; war ; defeat of F7rde7'ick (10) — 
struggle of Lewis IV. a7id Pope yoh7i XXII. (11) — Lewis IV. 
beco77ies sole Ki7ig ; is crow7ied E77ipe7'or (12) — Lewis IV. sup- 
p07'ted by his subjects agai7ist the Popes (13) — election of Chailes 
IV. ; death of Lewis IV. (14) — the Ki7igs a7id their he7^edita7y 
lands (i^)—the Eidge7iossen or Confederates ; battle of Mor- 
ga7'ten Pass (16). 

I. The Interregnum. — After the death of Conrad IK, 
William of Holland was the only King in Germany ; but 
he was quite powerless. He was killed in 1256, while fight- 
ing against the Frisiars. Tlierc wds now no one who had 
my particular claim to the crown. The Electors, therefore, 
resolved to appoint a King under whom they and their 
fellow princes could confirm their independence. Two 
foreigners — Alfonso, King of Castile, and Richard, Earl of 
Cornwall, brother of Henry HI, of England — were very 
anxious to receive the crown. As both bribed the Electors, 
one party chose Richard and another Alfonso. The period 



[CH. X.] RUDOLF OF HABSBURG. 95 

which followed this double election is called the Interreg- 
num. Richard was crowned King at Aachen ; but after 
his coronation he visited Germany only three times, and 
he never interested himself much in its affairs. Alfonso 
never even came to Germany. The Lnterregnum is one 
of the darkest periods in German history. The princes and 
immediate nobles ruled their lands exactly as they chose 
and carried on many wars both among themselves and 
against the cities. The petty independent barons, whose 
numbers now so much increased, were almost all robbers, 
so that no one worth robbing dared to travel unless he 
was strongly guarded. During this fierce time men 
thought of Frederick Barbarossa, and dreamed of the 
day when he should awake from his sleep and bring back 
peace and order to Germany. 

2. Election of Rudolf of Habsburg". — Richard of Cornwall 
died in 1271. The Electors would have been in no hurry to 
appoint a successor ; but the Pope found that the confusion 
caused by the absence of the royal authority in Germany 
was interfering with the Papal revenue. He therefore let 
the Electors know that if they did not choose a King he 
himself would appoint one. At last, in 1273, Rudolf , Count 
oi Habsburg^ was elected. Habsburg was in Aargaic in the 
south of Sv/abia. Rudolf was a brave man, and sincerely 
anxious to put down the disorders which were ruining 
Germany. He was greatly strengthened by the support of 
the Church, to which he was always submissive. 

3. Otto car, King- of Bohemia. — By far the most power- 
ful prince of the Empire at this time was Qttocar^ King of 
Bohemia. Besides his native kingdom, he now held Austria^ 
Styria^ Carinthia^ and Carniola. He ruled these lands 
very harshly, and was generally disliked. As he had hpped 
to have been made King of the Romans himself, he refused 
to acknowledge Rudolf During the years 1274 and 1275 



96 SO VEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. [cHAr. 

he was three times summoned to do Homage for his lands, 
but he would not yield. In 1276, therefore, Rudolf marched 
against him. Rudolf had a large army, for the princes 
^vere jealous of Ottocar, and anxious to see him humbled. 
Seeing this, Ottocar became afraid, and not only did homage 
for the kingdom of Bohemia, but resigned Austria and the 
neighbouring lands. Mbst of the princes, thinking the war 
was at an end, returned to their territories. When they 
had done so, Ottocar began the war again, hoping to find 
Rudolf unprepared. In 1278 a fierce battle was fought at 
the Marchfield^ on the right bank of the Danube. Both 
sides fought bravely, but at last the Bohemians were 
defeated, and Ottocar himself was killed. 

4. The House of Habsburg receives Austria. — Some 
time after his victory ovei Ottocar, Rudolf, with the consent 
of the princes, gave Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola 
in fief to his sons, Albert and Rudolf. Afterwards Carinthia 
was given to Count Memhard of Tyrol^ whose daughter 
was Albert's wife ; and the othe lands were left in the 
hands of Albert alone. By thes arra ^gements King Rudolf 
laid the foundations Of the future gr .atness of the house of 
Habsburg. 

5. Rudolf's government. His death. — The crown lands 
of Germany had at one time been very extensive ; but by 
the time Rudolf became King, they had nearly all passed 
into the hands of great nobles. Some of them had been 
sold by different Emperors to provide money for the wars 
carried on in Italy ; others had been seized by the Pals- 
graves who administered them, and by neighbouring princes. 
Nearly all the royal dues had also been seized or granted 
away. Rudolf strove hard to win back the royal lands and 
dues which had been unjustly taken during the Interregnum; 
and in spite of the difficulties in his way he was to some 
extent successful. But he probably did most for Germany 



X.J KING ADOLF. r^^ 

as an administrator of justice. He revived the system of 
judicial procedure and police set up by Frederick II., and 
rode through nearly every part of the kingdom, trying 
to put a stop 'to private war, and ridding the country of 
robbers. In Thuringia alone he caused twenty-nine robber 
nobles to be executed, and destroyed sixty-nine strongholds. 
In 1 29 1 he tried to get his son Albert elected King ; but the 
Electors refused to appoint a successor during his lifetime, 
nominally on the ground that the revenues of the crown, 
which could ill support one King, could much less support 
two. In September of the same year Rudolf died, in the 
seventy-fourth year of his age. His good government had 
made him a great favourite with the common folk. If the 
royal power had not been thoroughly undermined before he 
became King, he would have done much more to make 
Germany great and prosperous. 

6. King Adolf. — Rudolf's successor was Adolf ^ Count ol 
Nassau. Adolf was very poor, and had no great personal 
qualities. He was elected chiefly through the influence of 
Gerhard^ Archbishop of Mainz, his cousin, who hoped to 
use the new King as a tool for the attainment of his own 
ends. Like Rudolf, Adolf tried to win back some of the 
royal lands and dues ; but he could do very little against 
powerful nobles. He formed an alliance With Edward I. 
of England, who sent him a large sum of money on con- 
dition that he should declare war with France. At this 
time Thuringia was ruled by a very worthless Landgrave, 
Albert the Degenerate. With the money received from' 
Edward I. (for which no return v/as ever made) Adolf 
bought Thuringia from Albert. This gave rise to war, for 
Albert's two sons refused to give up their inheritance, and 
they were supported by some princes and by their own 
vassals. Meanwhile Adolf had been by no means so sub- 
missive to Gerhard as the latter had hoped. Taking 

G 



q8 sovereigns of different houses, [chap. 

advantage, therefore, of the discontent aroused by Adolf's 
doings in Thuringia, Gerhard persuaded the Electors to 
dethrone him, and to elect Albert^ Duke of Aiistria, King 
Rudolfs son. Adolf resisted, but in 1 298 he was killed in a 
battle near Worms. Albert was then re-elected and crowned 
at Aachen. 

7* King Albert I. — Albert had none of his father Rudolfs 
winning qualities. He had been a severe ruler in his own 
lands, and was anxious to make his house rich and great. 
He tried to get possession of Bohemia — his son Rudolf ^2iS 
King of Bohemia for a few months — and the county of 
Holland ; and he entered Thuringia for the purpose of 
driving out Frederick^ one of the two brothers who had 
resisted Adolf, and now Landgrave. Frederick bravely de- 
fended himself, and was at last allowed to keep his lands in 
peace, Albert's schemes for enriching his family were cut 
short by a violent death. His nephew, John^ whom he kept 
from his inheritance, formed a conspiracy with four other 
nobles; and on May i, 1308, when the King had just crossed 
the Reuss^ and was within sight of the castle of Habsburg, 
they fell upon him and killed him. A convent was after- 
wards built on the spot where the murder had been com- 
mitted. Albert had declared Vie7ina the capital of the 
realm in Austria. 

8. Henry VH. — The Electors, being jealous of the house 
of Austria, chose as King, not one of Albert's sons, but 
Henry ^ Count of Liltzelburg or Luxemburg. Henry did not 
hve to do much for Germany ; but he appears to have been 
one of the wisest of her Kings. His son John., with the 
consent of the Bohemian States, married Elizabeth^ grand- 
daughter of King Ottocar^ and thus became King of Bohemia. 
Bohemia long remained in the possesssion of the house of 
Luxemburg, so that Henr}^, like King Rudolf, was the means 
of making his own family very powerful. 



X.] LEWIS IV. 99 

9. Henry VII. becomes Emperor. His death. — No 
German King, since Frederick II., had been crowned 
Emperor. King Rudolf had said, " Rome is Hke the hon's 
den in the fable — one may see the footsteps of many who 
have gone there, but of none who have come back. ^' The 
connexion between Germany and Italy was now practically 
at an end ; and for an Emperor to have claimed authority 
over any other of the leading European countries would 
have been ridiculous. But the Germans had long been 
accustomed to think of themselves as the Imperial race. 
For centuries their Kings had, at least in name, been rulers 
of the world. Although all life had gone out of the Empire, 
they were unwilling to lose the distinction which its con- 
nexion with their crown gave them. King Henry himself 
was. anxious to become Emperor. In 1310, therefore, he 
went to Italy, and received both the Italian and the Imperial 
crowns. He would probably have restored the Empire to 
some of its old greatness, but he died suddenly at Bicoiicon- 
ve7ito in 13 1 3. 

10. Election of Frederick of Austria and Lev/is of Bavaria 
— In choosing a successor to Henry VII., the Electors were 
divided into two parties. One chose Lewis^ Duke of 
Bavaria; another, Frederick, Duke of Austria, eldest son 
of King Albert. Frederick was so handsome that he was 
known as Frederick the Fair. Both candidates were 
crowned, Lewis at Aachen, and Frederick at Bonn. The 
result of this double election and coronation was a terrible 
war, which lasted for ten years, and did great harm to 
Germany. The towns for the most part sided with Lewis ; 
the nobles with Frederick. At last, in 1322, a great battle 
was fought near Milhldorf. The Austrians. were defeated, 
and Frederick was taken prisoner, and confined in the 
Castle of Traus7iitz in the Upper Palatinate. 

i:. Lewis IV. and Pope John XXII. — Frederick's 



lOO SOVEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. [CKAP. 

brother, Duke Leopold, and other princes, would not accept 
the battle of Miihldorf as decisive. Their cause was 
greatly strengthened by a quarrel in which Lewis became 
involved with Pope John XXII. The latter was angry 
with Lewis for acting as King of the Romans without 
having received the Papal sanction. Lewis maintained 
that he received his dignity, not from the Pope, but from 
the Electors. As he held by this opinion, the Pope not only 
excommunicated him, but placed under the interdict those 
parts of Germany which supported him. Thus the old 
quarrel between the spiritual and the secular powers once 
more broke out. 

12. Lewis IV. becomes sole King-; is crowned Emperor. 
• — Anxious to obtain peace, Lewis set Frederick free in 1325, 
on securing a promise from him that he would give up all 
claims to the crown. The Pope and Duke Leopold, Frede- 
rick's brother,, refused to be bound by this agreement ; but 
Frederick remained true to his word. At last, in September, 
1325, Lewis and Frederick agreed to share the power be- 
tween them. This agreement was carried out ; but Frederick 
took little interest in public affairs, and died in 1330. Lewis 
then became sole King. The years between 1327 and 1330 
he had spent in Italy, where he had been crowned Emperor, 
first by two heretical Bishops, and afterwards by a Pope of 
his own creation, called Nicholas V, 

13. Lewis IV. supported by his subjects against the 
Popes. — Although Lewis had appointed an anti-Pope, he 
tried hard to be reconciled, first to Pope John, and afterwards 
to Bejtedict XII, John's successor. His efforts failed, partly 
because they were opposed by France, on which the Popes 
were at this time practically dependant, and which wished 
to keep the Empire weak. But the Papacy no longer held 
tne position with respect to Germany which it had held in 
the days of Henry IV. and Frederick 11. The cities and 



X.J LEWIS IV. loi 

many of the princes, seeing that Papal interference had 
always brought strife into the kingdom, had become more 
and more jealous of the Popes. The Popes therefore found, 
in their quarrel with Lewis, that they had no longer the 
support of public opinion, which had made former Popes 
ail-powerful. When Lewis had failed to conciliate Benedict, 
the States met at Frankfurt in 1338, and openly sided with 
the Emperor. The Electors, with the exception of King 
John of Bohemia, w^ho was jealous of the house of Bavaria, 
and one of Lewis's most persistent enemies, met at Reuse, on 
the Rhine, and made a solemn declaration that the Emperor 
.or King of the Romans derived his rank and power, not 
from the Pope, but from the choice of the Electoral princes. 
This meeting of the Electors was the first Electoral League. 
Their decision w^as accepted by the States, proclaimed by 
the Emperor, and became part of the law of the land. It 
w^as a decision of great importance, as it legally established 
the independence of the Empire. 

14. Election of Charles IV. Death of Lewis IV. — A 
wise sovereign would have known how to use the popular 
feeling in his favour so as to strengthen his own power; but 
Lewis was very imprudent. In 1323 he had given the 
Mark of Brandenburg in fief to his son Lewis. He was 
anxious that this same son should receive Tyrol ; but 
Margaret Maidtasch, the heiress of Tyrol, was already 
married to a son of King John of Bohemia. Lewis dis- 
solved Margaret's marriage, and gave her a dispensation 
to marry his own son. In taking this step he attacked a 
Papal right which all acknowledged. Lie therefore not 
only made reconciliation with the Pope impossible, but 
turned against him many who had hitherto, supported him. 
He also roused the jealousy of the princes by greatly 
enriching his family. He had made his son Lewis a 
wealtby prince ; and on the deach of William IV. of 



I02 SOVEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES, [chap. 

Holland, the brother of his second wife, he gave the 
counties of Holland^ Seeland^ and Heiinegaii in fief to his 
son William. The ill-will roused by Lewis found expres- 
sion in 1344 at a second assembly of the Electors, where 
the princes brought many accusations against him. Two 
years afterwards Pope Cle7ne7it VI. declared him deposed. 
This time the Electors were at one with the Pope, and 
chose to the vacant throne Charles^ Margrave of Moravia, 
and son of King John of Bohemia. Lewis still claimed to 
be King and Emperor ; but he died suddenly during a boar 
hunt in 1347. 

1 5. The Kings and their hereditary lands. — Lewis had not, 
like most of the Kings before him, given up his hereditary 
lands ; and after his time no German King did so. The 
reason was that the public revenues had become too small 
to support the royal and Imperial dignity. The change 
was not altogether good for the country. The King was 
now tempted to neglect the general interests of Germany 
for those of his own immediate subjects, and to look on the 
crown as little more than a means of enriching himself and 
his family. 

16. The Eidgenossen or Confederates. — It was during 
the reign of Lewis IV. that the famous battle of Morgarten 
Pass was fought. The people of Schwyz, Uri, and U7iter- 
walden^ three districts lying round what is now called the 
Lake of Lttzer7t^ had always been free, doing allegiance to 
none save the King or Emperor. When the Counts of 
Habsburg became Dukes of Austria, they began to covet 
these districts, within which they already had estates, and 
to wish to add them to their hereditary possessions. The 
three districts had already, like other districts and cities of 
Germany, formed a League for mutual defence ; but 
they now drew closer together, and prepared to tight, it* 
necessary, for their freedom. In 13 15, soon after the oui- 



X.] . THE EIDGENOSSEN. 103 

break of war betn^een Frederick and Lewis IV., Leopold, 
Duke of Austria, marched against the League, for the pur- 
pose of breaking it up and subduing the people. But his 
fine army wa"s utterly routed in Morgarieii Pass, and he 
himself escaped with difficulty. After this the League was 
favoured by Lewis IV. During his time it was joined by 
the city of Liizeni; and soon after his death the cities of 
Zurich^ Ziig^ Giants^ and Bern also joined it, one after the 
other. The League thus became very strong, and its various 
members added to their power by seizing or buying, when- 
ever they had a chance, the lands of neighbouring nobles. 
The members of the League were called Eidgenossen or 
Co7ife derates J the League itself was the Old League of High 
Germany. It was not till long afterwards that the whole 
Confederation received the name which properly belonged 
to the one canton oi Schwyz. 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. 

Charles IV, ; crowned Emperor^ and King of Burgundy (i) — tke 
plague in Germany ; persecution of the yews (2) — Charles IV, 
grants the Golden Bull (3) — Charles IV. adds to his hereditary 
lands; his good government of them ; his death (4) — the House 
of Austria receives Carinthia and Tyrol (^) — bad goveimiJient of 
King Wenceslaus ; the Swabian league (6) — the battles op 
Seinpach and Ndfels (7) — Wenceslaus deposed ; Kijig Rupert (8) 
election of yobst and Sigmund ; death ofyobst; Sigmund re- 
elected (9) — the Council of Co7isianz (10) — increased power of the 
Eidgenossen (ii) — the doctrines of Wy cliff e in Bohemia ; yohn 
Huss summoned before th/" Council of Constanz ; he is burned as 
a heretic ; yerome of Prague also burned (12) — the Hussite War; 
yohn Zisca (13) — the Calixtines a7id the Taborites ; the Calix- 
tines accept the terms of the Council of Basel ; the Taborites 
defeated; Sigmtmd becomes King of Bohemia ; his death (14) 
— Frederick of Hohenzollern receives Brandeiibiug ; Frederick of 
Meisse7Z receives Sachsen- Wittenberg (i5)« 

I. Charles IV. — The house of Bavaria refused at first to 
acknowledge Charles IV. ; and, with the help of the Arch- 
bishop of Mainz, got Edzvard III of England, and after- 
wards Frederick^ Margrave oi Meissen., elected. Neit?her of 
these would accept the crown. Gilnther^ Count of Schwarz- 
burg., was elected in 1 349, and might have proved a for- 
midable rival to Charles ; but he suddenly died, perhaps by 
poison, soon after his election. Charles was then crowned 



[CH. XT.) THE GOLDEN BULL. ic^- 



again at Aachen, and reigned without opposition. In 1355 
he was crowned Emperor at Ronie^ and in 1365 King of 
Burgundy at Aries. 

2. The plague in Germany ; persecution of the Jews. — 
In 1349 Germany suffered, Hke the rest of Europe, from 
a fearful plague, known in England as the Black Death, 
which had been brought to Italy by ships from the East, 
and quickly spread to other countries. Hundreds of 
thousands died within a short time. Everywhere men 
were anxious and disturbed, and submitted to all kinds of 
penances to appease what was believed to be the Divine 
.wrath. A belief arose that the Jews had brought on the 
plague by poisoning springs and rivers. This led to 
a persecution so dreadful that many Jews set fire to their 
houses and perished in the flames rather than fall into the 
hands of their enemies. It was only when the princes, and 
especially the spiritual princes, interfered that the persecu- 
tion gradually died out. 

3. The Golden Bull. — Charles IV. almost wholly neglected 
Germany. Instead of trying to win back the crown lands, 
he sold what still remained of them. He also enriched 
himself by selling honours and privileges, raising many, 
in return for money, to noble and even princely rank. 
In 1356 he granted a charter called the Goldeii Biill^ which 
finally settled everything connected with the election of the 
King. The number of the Electors was fixed at seven. 
The King of Bohemia was not only confirmed in his right 
of voting, but was declared the first secular Elector. The 
Archbishop of Mainz was made convener of the Electoral 
College. All cases were to be decided by a majority 
of votes. The elections were always to take place at Frank- 
^urt^ and the coronations at Aachen. The Electors had 
already acquired a great position ; but the Golden Bull added 
to tneir importance. They received full sovereign rights 



£o6 THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. [char 

within their territories ; there was to be no appeal from their 
courts unless they refused to dispense justice ; and their 
persons were declared sacred. These privileges raised 
them still further above other princes, and made them, 
taken together, of more importance than the King or 
Emperon 

4. Charles IV. and his hereditary lands. — Charles greatly 
increased his hereditary lands. By his second wife he 
obtained the Upper Palatinate; and he united the whole of 
Silesia and Lower Lusatia to Bohemia. He also gained 
the Mark of Brandenburg from the house of Bavaria. 
While he was a bad German King and Emperor, he ruled 
all the lands directly subject to him in a very enlightened 
spirit. Bohemia flourished under him as it had done under 
no former King. He greatly improved Prague^ the 
Bohemian capital, and founded there a University which 
soon became a famous centre of thought and learning^ 
Charles died at Prague in 1378, Two years before the 
Electors had chosen his son Wenceslaus to be King of the 
Romans. 

5. Growing power of the House of Austria. — The house of 
Austria, like that of Luxemburg, added greatly to its power 
about this time. In 1335 it received Carinthia, after the 
death of LLenry^ the last descendant, in the male line, of 
Meinhard^ to whom King Rudolf had given the Duchy. 
When Margaret Maultasck, Henry's daughter, died in 
1366, Tyrol was claimed by the house of Bavaria ; but 
in 1369 it was finally given up to the house of Austria, to 
which Margaret had bequeathed it. From this iix^^-Carin- 
thia and Tyrol always belonged to the Dukes of Austria. 

6. King Wenceslaus. The Swabian League. — Wenceslaus 
was neither a good Bohemian nor a good German King. 
He was a man of coarse nature, fond of low pleasures, and 
sometimes savagely cruel The result of his and his 



xr.l THE BATTLES OF SEMPACH AND NAFETS. 107 

fp.thers neglect of Germany was that something hke the 
confusion of the Inte?'rcgnum returned. There were never 
more robber barons, and there were petty wars everywhere 
throughout the kingdom. The towns had to maintain their 
freedom by constant fighting. Those of Swabia, following 
the example of the Eidgenosse^i and of the Rhenish and 
Hansa towns, formed at this time a great League, which 
took in at first thirty-four, and afterwards forty-one towns, 
together with some nobles. If there had been a King 
in Germany wise enough to ally himself with this and the 
other Confederations, much of the royal power might have 
been won back ; but Wenceslaus v\'as too indolent to do 
more than give a feeble encouragement to the various 
Lea:^ues. In opposition to the Leagues of towms, the princes 
and nobles also formed Confederations, to which they gave 
such names as the Society of St. George^ St. William^ the 
Lion^ or the Panther. 

7. The Battles of Sempach and Nafels. — During the 
reign of Wenceslaus, Duke Leopold of Austria, nephew of 
tlie Leopold who had fought at Morgarten Pass, made a 
great effort to conquer the Eidge7iossen, who had received 
into their League some towns owing allegiance to Austria. 
Leopold was joined by many princes and nobles, who were 
jealous of the growing power of the League. A great battle 
was fought at Sevipach in 1386. The Austrians and their 
allies were utterly defeated ; and Leopold himself was 
killed. Two years afterwards an important victory was 
gained by Glariis at Nafels. In consequence of these 
victories, the Eidgenossen were allowed to keep the lands 
they had conquered and the towns which had voluntarily 
Joined them. 

8. 'Wenceslaus deposed. King Rupert. — Wenceslausr was 
so bad a King that in 1400 the Electors met and dethroned 
him, on the ground that he wholly failed in his duties. They 



lo8 THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. [chap. 

v/ere stirred up to do this by Boniface IX., one of the two 
Popes who at this time divided the Western Church, and 
Doth of whom Wenceslaus had wished to depose. By a 
majority of votes the Electors chose Rupert of the Palatinate 
as Wenceslaus^ successor. Rupert was in every way worthy 
of his position ; but a party still supported Wenceslaus, and 
even those who were in favour of the new King were not 
inclined to give him more than a nominal obedience. Con- 
sequently nothing of any importance was done during his 
reign. He tried to go to Rome, but was defeated at Brescia, 
In 1410 he died. 

9. King Sigmund. — Two Kings were now elected, Jobst^ 
Margrave oi Moravia, and Sigmund, brother of Wenceslaus. 
Sigmund was Margrave of Brandenburg, and had been 
made King of Hungary. Jobst very soon died, so that a 
new election took place. This time the votes of all the 
Electors were for Sigmund. Great hopes were raised by 
his election, for he had some good qualities ; but in the 
end he often showed himself rash and narrow-minded. He 
lacked firmness, and was thus led sometimes to do things 
probably condemned by his own better judgment. 

10. The Council of Constanz. — There were at this time 
three Popes, and in Germany, as elsewhere, many abuses 
had crept into the Church. Benefices were often sold to 
the highest bidder, and the moral condition of the clergy 
v\^as in many cases very bad. A Ge7ieral Council had 
met at Pisa in 1409, but Sigmund induced Pope John 
XXIII. to join him in summoning another, which assem- 
bled at Constanz in 14 14, and sat till 141 8. Sigmund 
took a leading part in the proceedings of the Council of 
Constanz, and even went to Spain to try to induce Benedict 
XIII to carry out its wishes by resigning. Whiie he was 
away from Germany at this time, Sigmund visited Paris 
and London. 



XL] JOHN IIUSS, 109 

11. Increased power of the Eidgenossen. — The assembling 
of the Council was indirectly the means of adding greatly to 
the importance of the Eidgeiiosseit. After having promised 
to resign, Vo^€Johu XXIII. fled from Constanz to Schaff- 
haicse7i^ where he found refuge in the castle of Duke 
Frederid: of Austria. Sigmund put Frederick to the ban 
of the Empire, and stirred up the Eidgenossen to make war 
on him. Bern at once did so ; and it was soon joined by 
the other cantons. When Frederick made peace with 
Sigmund he received back many of his possessions ; but 
the Eidgenossen refused to give up what they had con- 
quered. They thus kept Aargau^ in which was the castle 
of Habsbitrg^ and other lands and towns. 

12. The doctrines of Wycliffe in Bohemia. John Huss. — 
At this time a movement was going on in Bohemia which 
led to very important results. The University of Prague, 
which Charles IV. had founded, was divided into four 
nations — the Bohemia7t^ the Saxon^ the Bavarian^ and the 
Polish — each possessing one vote. A strong party had 
grown up among the Bohemians, which held in the main 
the doctrines of the Englishman, Wycliffe. The leader of 
this party" was John Hicss^ a professor of philosophy. As 
the other nations were opposed to the Wycliffite doctrine, 
there were constant disputes between them and the 
Bohemians. In 1409, Wenceslaus, who was still King of 
Bohemia, changed the constitution of the University, giving 
three votes to the Bohemian nation and only one to the 
others. The German students and professors felt insulted 
by this, and at once left Prague, going for the most part to 
the University recently founded at Leipzig. The reforming 
party was now all-powerful, and Huss, who was made 
Rector of the University, began to speak very strongly 
against the abuses of the Church. He thus roused the 
hatred of the clergy, and at last the Pope excommunicated 



no THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. [chap. 

him, and placed Prague under the interdict so long as it 
should shelter him. When the Council of Constanz met, 
Huss was summoned to appear before it. The Council 
thought his doctrines dangerous both to Church and Stat'^, 
and soon after he reached Constanz caused him to be 
seized and thrown into prison. On July 6, 141 5, he was 
burned. He had received a safe-conduct from the King ; 
but Sigmund was weak or base enough to let the Council 
persuade him that he ought not to keep his word with a 
heretic. The movement in Bohemia displeased Sigmund, 
not only because he thought it heretical, but because it was 
arousing among the Bohemians a national life which must, 
sooner or later, tend to separate them from the Empire. In 
141 6, Jeroine of Prague^ who had first brought Wycliffe's 
writings to Prague, was also burned in Constanz. 

13. The liussite War. — The burning of Huss and Jerome 
of Prague caused a very bitter feeling in Bohemia, and this 
was increased by further attempts made by the Council of 
Constanz and by Pope Martin V. to put down the heretics. 
When Wenceslaus died in 14 19, Signtund claimed to be 
King of Bohemia. If he had tried to conciliate the more 
moderate Hussites he might have gained the crown at once ; 
but, instead of doing so, he caused a crusade to be preached 
against all PIuss^s followers, and thus united them against 
him. The war which followed was a very fierce one, and 
lasted fifteen years. The Hussites were at first led by John 
Zisca^ one of the greatest generals that ever lived. He 
became blind ; but his followers had unbounded trust in 
him, and he led them from one victory to another. He 
died in 1424. After his death, his spirit seemed still to 
live among the Hussites, for they not only defeated army 
after army sent against them, but invaded and laid waste 
the lands lying around Bohemia. 

14. Sigmund receives the crown of Bohemia. His 



XI.] SIGMUND AND THE UTRAOUISTS. in 

death. — The Council of Basel met in 143 1, and soon began 
to negotiate with the Hussites. The latter were divided into 
two parties — the Calixtines and the Taborites. The chief 
doctrine of the~ Calixtines (Kalyx^ a cup) was that laymen 
as well as the clergy ought to receive the cup in the com- 
munion. The Taborites w^ent much further than this, and 
wished to remain for ever separate from the Church. They 
received their name from a hill which Zisca had made his 
headquarters and had strongly fortified, and which had 
been called Mount Tabor, In 1433 the Calixtines, also 
called Utraquists, cam^ to an agreement with the Basel 
Council, which permitted the use of the cup ; and returned 
to the Church. The Taborites looked on this as treachery, 
and turned against their old friends ; but in 1434 they were 
utterly defeated near Prague. Sigmund then confirmed the 
agreement made between the Council and the Utraquists, 
and was acknowledged King of Bohemia. He did not, 
however, act fairly, for when he came to Prague he tried to 
put down the Utraquists, and to bring back the Catholic 
worship. He died in 1437. In 1433 he had been crowned 
Emperor. 

15. Brandenburg and Sachsen-Wittenberg. — In 141 5, in 
return for 400,000 Hungarian gulden, Sigmund gave the 
Mark of Brandenburg in fief to Frederick^ Count of Hohen- 
zollern: From this time the house of Hohenzollern always 
held Brandenburg. Sachse?t- Wittenberg \\2ihg\wQnm 1423, 
also in return for money, to Frederick, Margrave of Meissen 
and Landgrave of TJiuringia, Both princes received the 
Electoral dignity along with their new lands. 



CHAPTER XIL 

EIIPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 

Albert of Austria elected; his firin government ; his death (i) — 
Frederick of Styria becomes King ; supports the Pope against the 
princes (2) — -Frederick III. crowned Fjnperor ; confirms to the 
House of Austria the title of Archduke {^f) — the Turks threaten 
Christendom (4) — Ladislaus, Albert IL^s son^ dies ; Frederick 
III. receives Lower Austria ; George Podiebrad becomes King of 
Bohemia^ and Matthias Corvinus King of Htingary (5) — wars 
in Germajty [6)—distm'bances in Austria (7) — Charles the Bola' 
defeated by the Fidgenossen (8) — Maximilian^ Frederick IIL^s 
son, marries Mary of Burgtiitdy (9) — wars of Frederick III. 
and Matthias Corvinus [lo)— the Swabian Coitfederation ; death 
of Frederick III. (11) — the Teutonic Order has to give up the 
westei^n part of Prussia to the King of Poland, and to do homage 
for the rest (12) — character and power of Maximilian I. {13) 
— Marriage of Philip, son of Maximilian /., with the Infanta 
Joanna (14) — a perpetual peace proclaimed; the ImpeiHai 
Chamber ; the common pe7t7iy [i^)— foreign wars of Maximilian 
I. (16) — the Turks {iy)—war of Maxi7nilian I. with the Swiss 
League (18) — zvar of the Bavarian succession (19) — Mdxijjiilian 
L takes the titles of ^^ Fmpei'or Elect ^^ and ^^King of Ger- 
many^'' (20) — Germany divided into Ciixles (21) — the Aulic 
Council (22) — death of Maxi7?iilian I. (23) — the end of the 
Middle Ages (24) — positio?i of the Gernian Kings (25) — the 
pidnces ; the Provincial States (26) — the free Lnperial cities (27) 
the Diet (28) — the Rojnan Law in Ge^'many (29) — Universities 



[CH. XII.] ALBERT IL 113 

of Ger}7iany ; the Revival of learnmg (30) — the Literature of 
the people (31). 

1. Albert I!: — After Sigmund died, his son-in-law, Albert^ 
Duke of Austria, was made King of Bohemia and of Hun- 
gary ; and in 1438 he was chosen King of the Romans. 
From this time the Imperial crown was held without inter- 
ruption by the house of Austria till the male line died out. 
At this time the affairs of the Church were the chief subject 
of interest to Germany as well as to the rest of Europe. 
The Council of Basel had quarrelled with Pope Euge7iiiis 
JV.^ who was supported by all who opposed the reformation 
of the Church. At first Germany took neither side in this 
quarrel ; but in 1439 Albert, with the approval of the Diet, 
accepted the reforming decrees of the Council, and thus 
recognized its authority. If these decrees had been carried 
out, the Church might have been spared much future 
humiliation. Albert acted as wisely in civil as in ecclesiastical 
matters, so that his reign promised to be a very prosperous 
one ; but he suddenly died, after a campaign against the 
Turks, in 1439. 

2. Frederick III. — Albert II. was succeeded on the Ger- 
man throne by Frederick^ Duke of Styria, Frederick 
reigned longer than any German King either before or after 
his time, but did nothing great. He was a grave and 
thoughtful man, but he lacked energy, and was too poor 
to do much without the help of the States, which were now 
almost always unwilling to interfere in matters not directly 
affecting themselves. Germany still supported the Council 
of Basel ; but Frederick sided with the Pope. In 1445 
Eugenius IV. deposed the Archbishops of K'obi and Trier. 
The Electors felt themselves wronged by this insult to two of 
their number, and, meeting at Frankfurt^ made various de- 
mands on the Pope, requiring, among other things, that he 

H 



1 14 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A USTRIA, [chap. 

should recognize the decrees of Constanz and Basel. 
Frederick III., with the help of his secretary, j^iieas Sylviics, 
who afterwards became Pope, not only got the Electors to 
moderate their demands, but in the end reconciled them to 
Eugenius. He afterw^ards concluded with Nicolas V. the 
Concordat of Vicjuta, by which the Pope received back 
almost all the rights which the Basel Council had taken 
fi'om him. To this Concordat the assent of the princes, one 
after the other^ was afterwards obtained. By his friendship 
with the Pope Frederick hoped to gain back some of the lost 
rights of the German Kings. He thus turned against the 
princes the very weapon with which they had in former 
times attacked the royal and Imperial authority. But it, was 
now too late to take this com'se. An alliance between 
the Pope and the German King would once have done great 
things for both ; but they had quarrelled so long, and 
weakened each other so thoroughly, tha.t their friendship 
was now of very little use to either. 

3. Frederick HI. and the House of Austria. — Frederick 
was crowned Emperor at Rome in 1452. He was the last 
Emperor crov/ned at Rome,, and the last but one who 
received the Imperial crown from a Pope. When he 
became Emperor he confirmed to the House of Austria the 
title of Archduke, which had been first taken by Duke 
Rjcdolf in the time of the Emperor Charles IV. He also 
granted privileges to his family which raised it above all 
other princely houses except those of the Electors. 

4. The Turks. — A great danger at this time threatened 
Germany. This was the advance of the Turks, who took 
Constantinople in 1453, and destroyed the Eastern Empire. 
Frederick wished to join the Pope in keeping back this 
powerful enemy; but the States would not support him, 
partly from indifference to what affected the general weal, 
and partly because they feared that if they should contribute 



XII. ] fVAJ^S IN GERMANY. 1 1 5 



men and money the Pope and the Emperor would use these 
for their private ends. The defence of Christendom by land 
was thus left chiefly to the Poles and the Hungarians. In 
1456 the Turks besieged Belgrade; but they were driven 
back with great loss by the Hungarians, who were led by 
their regent, JoJui Huniades. 

5. Death of Ladislaus, son of Albert II. — Ladislaus, the 
posthumous son of Albert II., had succeeded his father as 
Duke of Austria and as King of Hungary and Bohemia. He 
died in 1457. The Emperor then claimed, as head of his 
house, the whole of Austria ; but he had to give up Upper 
Austria to his brother Albert^ and to content himself with 
Lower Austria. He next tried to obtain the Bohemian and 
Hungarian crowns. The Bohemians, hov/ever, elected 
George Podiebrad^ a Utraquist nobleman, who had already 
acted as regent ; and Matthias Corvinus^ son of John 
Huniades^ was made King of Hungary. In the end 
Frederick had to recognise both of these Kings. 

6. Wars in Germany. — The reign of Frederick was a time 
of great confusion in Germany, for when he interfered in its 
affairs he had no power to enforce his decrees. A war, 
called the Margraves' War, went on for seven years, from 
1449, between Albert^ Margrave of Brandenburg^ and the 
city of Niiriiberg, Many princes joined Albert ; and 
NUrnberg was supported by the Eidgenossen and more 
than seventy cities. At last, in 1456, the war was ended by 
the defeat of Albert ; but in the end the city had to pay to 
him a large sum. Another war was carried on against 
Frederick of the Rhenish Palatinate. He took the Arch- 
bishop of Mains^ when deposed by the Pope, under his 
protection. As usual, the Emperor sided with the Pope, 
and put Frederick to the ban of the Empire. Albert of 
Brandenburg., and Ulrich., Count of WUrtemberg., under, 
took to execute the Imperial sentence; but, in 1462, both 



1 1 6 EMPERORS OF THE HO USE OF A USTRIA, [chap. 

were defeated, Ulrich by Frederick himself, and Albert by 
Frederick's ally, Lewis ^ Duke of Bavaria, Other wars 
were carried on which did much harm to all classes, but 
especially to the peasantry. 

7. Disturbances in Austria. — Even in Lower Austria the 
Emperor was treated with very little respect. In 1462 the 
people of Vienna rebelled against him, and besieged him in 
the citadel, in which he had taken refuge with the Empress 
and their young son Maximilian, Frederick's brother 
Albert took part with Vienna. The Emperor in vain 
appealed to the States to help him ; but at last George 
Podiebrad, King of Bohemia, sent an army to his relief. 
In 1462 he was compelled to give up Lower Austria, with 
Vienna, for eight years to his brother. Albert, however, 
made himself as unpopular as the Emperor had done ; and 
he died in 1463. Flis death made Frederick master of all 
the Austrian lands except Tyrol. 

8. Charles the Bold and the Eidgenossen. — The wealthiest 
prince of this time was Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy . 
Besides the DtccJiy of Burgundy, he held the Free County of 
Burgundy and greater part of the Lozv Coitntries. He 
wished to restore the old Lotharingia by founding a great 
border kingdom, reaching from the Mediterranean to the 
North Sea, between France and Germany. In 1476 he 
made war on the Eidgenossen, whom Lewis XL of France 
had stirred up against him. The Eidgenossen never fought 
more bravely than in this war, for they defeated Charles in 
two great battles, first at Granson and afterwards at Moral. 
In 1477 they helped Re7ie\ Duke of Lorraine, to win the 
battle of Nancy, in which Charles was killed. These great 
victories did much to draw the Eidgenossen, who now began 
to be called Szuiss, closer together, and to give tham a 
feeling of national life. But they still remained part of the 
Empire. 



xn.] FREDERICK in. AND MATTHIAS CORVINUS. 117 

9. Marriag-e cf Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy. — 
There had been negotiations between the Emperor Frederick 
and Charles the Bold for the marriage of Mary., Charles's 
daughter, wilh Maxiinilian^ Frederick's son ; but some mis- 
understanding had arisen, and the negotiations were broken 
off. When Charles died, Mary gave her hand of her own 
will to Maximihan. Through this marriage the house of 
Austria received the Low Cotmtries and the Free Cotniiy of 
Burgundy. The DucJiy of Burgundy had been seized by 
the French King when Charles the Bold died ; and it was 
not again given up. Mary died in 1482, leaving a son and 
daughter, Philip and Margaret. 

10. Frederick III. and Matthias Corvinus. — Georo-e Podie- 
brad died in 147 1. The Emperor again tried to gain the 
crown of Bohemia ; but the Bohemian States elected 
Wladislaics^ son of Casijnir IV., King of Poland. Frederick 
had been won over by Pope Paid II. against Podiebrad, 
and had stirred up Matthias Corviiiits., King of Hungary, 
to make war on Bohemia. But Frederick w^as jealous of 
the great power of Matthias, and now not only left him, but 
supported Wladislaus against him, and excited rebellion 
in Hungary, hoping in the end to gain the Hungarian 
crown for himself and his house. Matthias twice made 
war on Austria, and the second time (1485) not only overran 
the Archduchy, but took Vienna. At this time the Emperor, 
nominally the greatest of earthly rulers, had to fly for his 
life, and was glad to find shelter in the monasteries and 
tow^ns he passed. Matthias kept possession of Austria till his 
death in 1490. Frederick then recovered his lands, and 
tried to get either himself or his son Maximilian elected 
King of Hungary. The Hungarian States, however, were 
jealous of the house of Austria, and chose as their King 

Wladislaus., King of Bohemia. 

11. The Swabian Confederation. Death of Frederick III. 



1 18 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OB A USTRIA. [chap. 

■ — There had been so many private wars 'in Frederick's time 
that the nation was longing for peace. At a Diet held in 
i486, therefore, a public peace was proclaimed for ten 
years. Two years afterwards, partly through the efforts of 
Frederick, a great new Confederation was formed in Swabia. 
It took in many princes, nobles, and cities. About this 
time the Duke of Bavaria had seized Regensbtirg^ and was 
threatening other free towns. The Confederation soon 
compelled him to submit ; and it gradually became so 
powerful that it did more than could have been done by 
either the Emperor or the Diet to keep the peace in South 
Germany. Frederick died in 1493, having reigned upwards 
of fifty-three years. For some time he had given up the 
government, both of Austria and Germany, to his son, 
Maximiliafi^ who had been elected King of the Romans in 
i486. 

12. Prussia and the Teutonic Order. — For a long time 
Prussia flourished under the Teutonic knights. But the 
Order gradually got corrupted by prosperity, and began to 
rule badly. In the beginning of the fifteenth century it 
was defeated and humbled by the Polish* king, Jagello7i. 
In 1454, the towns and nobles rebelled against the" Order, 
and called in Casimir IV., King of Poland, to their help. 
A war followed which did not end till 1466. The Order 
had then, in the Peace of Thorn, to give up the western part 
of Prussia to Casimir, and to do homage for the eastern^ 
which it was allowed to keep. 

13. Maximilian I. — Maximilian I. was a very different 
man from his father. He was eager and restless, fond of 
war and adventure, and always forming some scheme or 
other for adding to his own power. Even if he had not 
been King of the Romans, he would have been a powerful 
prince. He was, in his own right, Archduke of Austria^ 
Duke of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and Count of 



XIT.] THE D1E7' OF WORAIS, 14^^. 119 

Tyrol ; and he had lands in Swabia and Elsass. As 
guardian to his son Philips he also ruled the Low Countries 
and the County of Burgundy, 

14. Marriage of Philip with the Infanta Joanna. — The 
year after he succeeded to the throne, Maximilian gave up 
the government of the Low Countries to his son Philip. 
Philip afterwards married Joanna^ daughter of Ferdinand 
and Isabella, who had united by their marriage the king- 
doms of Aragon and Castile. This marriage led to very 
important results. Philip and Joanna had two sons, Charles 
and Ferdinand, These sons afterwards became Emperors, 

. one after the other ; and from them sprang the Austrian 
and Spanish branches of the House of Habsburg, 

15. The Diet of Worms, 1495. — In 1494, Charles VIIL 
of France made his famous expedition into Italy. Maxi- 
milian was eager to oppose him, and to assert the old Im- 
perial rights over the southern kingdom. As he could do 
very little without the help of the States, he summoned a 
Diet at Worms in 1495. This was one of the most famous 
of all the Diets, All good men in Germany now were 
sincerely anxious that the custom of private warfare should 
be put -down. At this Diet, a perpetual p7iblic peace 
was proclaimed, and the right of private feuds declared at 
an end. The States then urged Maximilian to set up some 
court by which disputes might be finally settled, so that 
there should be no excuse for carrying on private war. 
Maximilian was veiy unwilling to give up any of his royal 
rights ; but at last, in the hope that by yielding he might 
gain the support of the States against the French, he agreed 
to set up a court of appeal called the Imperial Chamber. 
This court was to be made up of 2i judge., or presidejtt, and 
sixteen assessors. The judge was to be appointed by the 
King ; but the assessors were to be named by the States, 
and only to be confirmed by the King. If any one should 



I20 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A U STRIA, [chap. 



refuse to submit to a decision of the court, it was to have 
the power of putting him to the ban of the Empire. A tax 
called the co7nmo7i pe7iny^ to be raised in all the States of 
Germany, was to be partly devoted to the support of the 
tribunal. Maximilian never liked the court, and did every- 
thing he could to make it fail ; but it went on after his time 
until the Empire was broken up. It had usually, however, 
too little power, and was too slow and formal in its pro- 
ceedings to be very useful. 

1 6. Foreign Wars of Maximilian I. — Maximilian took 
part in many wars in which Germany was not directly 
mixed up. They had almost all to do with Italy, which 
several French kings, one after the other, and Ferdinand of 
Spain, tried hard at this time to conquer. In 1508 Maxi- 
milian joined the League of Cainbray^ formed for the 
purpose of breaking up the Venetian Republic. He after- 
wards helped the so-called Holy League against Lewis XII. 
of France. In almost all his foreign wars Maximihan was 
very unsuccessful. The chief cause of this was his want of 
money. He often tried to get the States to help him ; but 
they usually insisted that what Germany really needed was 
peace and order, not war. He had therefore to trust 
chiefly to his hereditary possessions. Although these were 
very great, they did not enable him to fight on equal terms 
with Kings like Lewis XII., or Ferdinand, especially as he 
was lavish in his habits, and often wasted great sums of 
money in foolish display. His poverty led him sometimes 
to act in a way that was unworthy of his great position. At 
the siege of Terottenne he served under Henry VIII of 
England for the pay of 100 crowns a-day. 

17. The Turks. — In the latter part of Frederick III.'s 
reign, the Turks had, over and over again, entered Car- 
inthia, Carniola, and Styria, and had done much harm. 
Maximilian always professed to be anxious to lead a crusade 



XII.] JVA/^ OF THE BAVARIAN SUCCESSION. I2i 

against them, in order to drive them altogether from 
Europe ; but the Sta^esf '"distrusting both him and the 
Pope, who supported him, refused to help him, so that his 
schemes came'to nothing. During his reign, however, the 
Turks did not invade any of the lands held by the House of 
Austria. 

1 8. Maximilian I. and the Swiss Leag-ue. — In 1499, 
Maximilian made war on the Swiss League^ as we may 
now call the League of the Eidgenosse7i^ partly because it 
would not acknowledge the Imperial Chamber, but chiefly 
because it helped the French in their attempt to conquer 
.Italy. In this, as in his other wars, the States supported 

Maximilian very unwillingly ; and his own troops were 
defeated at Dornach. He was therefore obliged to con- 
clude a peace, by which the members of the Confederation 
were declared free from Imperial taxation and the juris- 
diction of the Imperial Chamber. The League was still 
nominally part of the Em.pire for about a century and a 
half ; but from this time it was practically independent. 

19. War of the Bavarian succession. — The house of 
Bavaria was still divided into two lines, the Palatine and 
the Bavarian; and the latter took in the two branches of 
Landshiit and Munich. When George^ Duke of Bavaria- 
Landshut, died, in 1503, the Dukes of Bavaria-Munich 
claimed to be his lawful heirs ; but he had left his lands to 
his daughter, Elizabeth^ and her husband, Rupert^ and they 
were supported by the Rhenish Palsgrave, Rupert's father. 
The matter came before the Imperial Chamber, but Rupert 
and his father would not accept its decision. Maximilian 
made war on them ; and he was joined by the Swabiar. 
League and some powerful princes. This was the 
most successful of all Maximilian's wars. He defeated 
the forces of the enemy, and in the end not only got 
the dispute settled according to his wish, but added 



122 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, [chap. 

various Bavarian towns and lands to- his hereditary pos- 
sessions. 

20. Maximilian I. takes the titles of ** Emperor Elect" 
and *'King" of Germany," — In 1508, Maximilian v^as about 
to march to Rom.e to be crowned Emperor ; but the Vene- 
tians refused to let him pass through their territory. With 
the sanction of Pope JitliiLS IL^ therefore, he took the title 
of " Emperor Elect " without being crowned Emperor at all. 
He also added to his other titles that of " King of or in 
Germany" — a title that does not occur before his time. 

21. Germany divided into Circles. — Albert II. had tried 
to divide Germany into Circles^ that he might be the better 
a,ble to put down private war ; but he had not lived long 
enough to carry out his plan. In Maximilian's time it was 
again taken up; and, in 1501, the Circles of Bavaria^ 
Swabia, Franconia^ the Upper Rhine^ Westphalia^ and 
Lower Saxony^ were formed. In 1512, at a Diet in Koln^ 
it was agreed that the hereditary dominions of Maximilian 
and the Electoral princes, which had hitherto been left out, 
should also be divided into Circles. Thus the four new 
Circles of Austria^ Bicrgimdy^ the Lower Rhine, and Upper 
Saxony, w^ere added to those already existing. Each of 
these ten Circles had its own States, presided over by one 
or more Directors. The duty of the Government of a Circle 
was to carry out the decisions of the Imperial Chamber, and 
generally to maintain order. It was some years before the 
Circles were thoroughly formed. They never did so much 
as many hoped they might do ; but they were a great 
advance on the disorder of the time of PYederick III. 

22. The Aulic Council. — Maximilian ruled his hereditary 
lands with great vigour. Amongst other things he set up 
a tribunal which was to receive appeals from lower courts. 
This tribunal was afterwards called the Aulic Council, and 
became a court of appeal for the whole of Germany. It 



XII.] 7 HE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES, 123 

lasted, like the Imperial Chamber, till the Empire broke up ; 
but, as its judges were appointed by the Emperor, it never 
thoroughly gained the confidence of the country. 

23. Death of -Maximilian I. — Maximilian went on almost 
till his death forming great schemxes, which he was never able 
to fulfil. He seems at one time even to have had the idea 
of getting himself elected Pope. At his very last Diet held 
\Vi Aicgsburg 'm. 1518, he did everything he could to rouse 
the States to join him in a cmsade against the Turks. He 
also tried, but in vain, to get his grandson, Charles^ elected 
King of the Romans. While on his way home from the 
Diet of Augsburg, Maximilian died in 1519, at Wels^ in 
Upper Austria. 

24. The end of the Middle A^es. — The Middle Ages may 
now be said to have nearly come to an end in Germany. 
The Empire v/as no longer looked on as a universal mon- 
archy ; and, as we shall see, the Church was soon to be 
broken up by the great movement of the Reformation. 
Some of the chief features oi feiidalism had also begun to 
disappear. The forms of feudalism were still, to some extent, 
kept up ; but feudal lords no longer received direct service 
in war from their vassals in return for their lands. Princes 
now for the most part m.ade war by means of hired troops. 
This change was brought about by the discovery of giin- 
pozi'der, which made a body of common men on foot more 
than a match for an equal number of even the bravest 
knights on horseback armed in the old way. The demand 
for fighting men led many to give themselves up to a life of 
war. Those who did so were called " La7idskfiechte^^ a 
word first applied to mercenaries from the lowlands of 
Austria as opposed to those of Switzerland.. The Lands- 
hiechte served under those princes who paid them best, no 
matter what might be the cause for which they had to fight. 
They made good soldiers, but were usually men of wild 



124 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A USTRIA, [cHAr. 

lives, and when not in active service were a cause of great 
annoyance to honest people both in the towns and in the 
country. 

25. Position of the German Kingfs. — The German King had 
now no certain revenue as King, and he exercised very little 
real power in Germany. Since the Interreg?i2i7ji the princes 
had greatly strengthened the independence whose foundation 
they had laid at that time and in the troubled reigns that 
had gone before it from the days of Henry IV. Many Im- 
perial cities had also become //r^. Nevertheless the German 
Kings took a far higher place in Europe after the time of 
Maximilian I. then they had done for a very long time before. 
This was not because they were German Kings or Emperors, 
but because they were great princes altogether apart from 
their royal and Imperial position. It was not always good 
for Germany that the crown was held by princes so powerful 
in their own right, for the Austrian Emperors as a rule tried 
to use their position as a means of adding to the greatness 
of their house. Above all, they tried to drag Germany into 
wars waged by Austria against other countries, but with 
which the kingdom of Germany had really little or nothing 
to do. 

26. The princes. The provincial States. — Although the 
princes owed only a nominal allegiance to the King, they 
were not usually altogether absolute rulers, for in almost 
every principality there were now States holding the same 
relation to the prince that the Diet held to the King. The 
States of a principality were made up of the vassals of the 
prince, and of representatives from its free cities. The prince 
had to get the approval of his States before he could lay on 
taxes ; and in some cases he had even to give an account 
of the way in which he spent public money. The nobles 
for the most part refused to pay taxes, on the plea that it 
was service in war, not money, they owed their lord for 



xiL] THE FREE IMPERIAL CITIES, 125 

their lands. The burden thus fell chiefly on those who 
held allodial lands, on the citizens of towns, and on the 
peasantry. The latter class had no part in the provincial 
Diets, and were usually treated with great harshness. The 
tyranny of their lords roused deep discontent in the minds 
of the peasants ; and more than once during Maximilian^s 
reign they formed secret Leagues in different parts of the 
country, w^hich had to be put down by force. 

27. The Free Imperial Cities. — The free Imperial cities 
now held a very high place in Germany. They had become 
rich and powerful, and could hold their own against the 
greatest princes. The Haiisa was about this time at the 
height of its fame. Within the cities themselves contests 
had long been going on between the old families, who 
formed a sort of civil aristocracy, and were called Patricians^ 
and the Gilds, The Gilds had not only won for themselves 
a share in the government in almost all cities, but had in 
very many got the upper hand, and made the government 
thoroughly democratic. 

28. The Diet. — The Diet was now made up of three 
Colleges — the Electors, the princes, and the representatives 
of free Imperial cities. It w^as still nominally a national 
council ; but in reality it did very little. The princes and 
free Imperial cities were now at all times too jealous of each 
other and of the Emperor to do much for the common 
good. 

29. The Roman law in Germany. — A great change 
had taken place in Germany in the administration of 
justice. During the greater part of the Middle Ages, as in 
earlier times, justice was administered in accordance with 
old usages. If the sovereign had remained a King and 
nothing more, these usages would gradually have given rise 
to a body of German law ; but, as he was Roman Emperor 
as well as King, his subjects came to believe that they were 



126 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A USTRIA. [chap. 

bound by Roman law. Thus the Roman law gradually 
came into use, first in the free Imperial cities, and afterwards 
in the tribunals of princes. From 1495 the Imperial 
Chamber was to judge according to the law of the Empire 
and written {i.e, Roman) law. The Emperors did everything 
they could to encourage its use, for it gave them great 
power. Without doing away with the feudal law of 
the land, it was now appealed to in the greater part of 
Germany. 

30. Universities of Germany. The Revival of Learning". 
— The example of Charles IV., in founding the University 
of Prague, had soon been followed by a number of princes 
in Germany, Universities were founded in the fourteenth 
century in Vienna, Heidelberg, Koht, and Erfttrtj and, in 
the fifteenth, in Rostock, Greifswald, Tilbi7ige7i, Leipzig, 
and other towns. For a long time the chief studies at the 
universities were Theology and the Scholastic Philosophy ; 
but towards the end of the fifteenth century a great move- 
ment began, called the Revival of Learning. The leading 
Latin authors had always been more or less studied ; but 
men now began to read eagerly, in addition to these, the 
Greek classics, and to think more freely on almost all 
subjects. Those who did so were called Htcmanists. The 
movement had begun in Italy, and had been greatly helped 
by the invention of printing, made by John GtUtenbe?'g of 
Mainz in the middle of the fifteenth century. Among the 
greatest of the Hinnanisis were John Reicchlin^ Desiderius 
Erasmus, and Ulrich von Hutten, 

31. Literature of the people. — It was not only at the 
universities that a new spirit of inquiry was awakened 
about this time ; the people also began to think and 
read for themselves. Their favourite books Avere Tyll 
Eulenspiegel, Reineke Fuchs, and the Narrenschiff of 
Sebastian Brant. The two first were written originally in 



XII.] LITERATURE OF THE PEOPLE. 127 

Low Dutch dialects. All of them were more or less satirical, 
and attacked with especial delight the vices of the clergy. 
They thus gave expression to, and deepened, a popular 
feeling which had long been preparing the way for the 
Reform.ationa 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CHARLES V. — THE REFORMATION. 

Election of Charles K ( I ) — Martin Luther protests against indul- 
gences ; beginning of the Reformation (2) — Luther is exco77i- 
niunicated ; burns the Pope^s Bull (3) — Charles V. sides with 
the Catholic Chmxh (4). — Luther before the Diet of Worms (5) — 
fori?iation of an Administrative Council ; a Matricula (6) — 
wars of Charles V, and Francis /. (7) — Luther'' s doctrines 
accepted by princes and cities ; 7nar7 iage of Luther ; the Diet of 
Speyer^ 1^26 ; changes in the Church in various States (8) — 
Franz von Sickingen (9) — the war of the peasantry (10) — Albert 
of Brandenburg becomes Duke of Prussia (ii) — the Archduke ■ 
Ferdinand becomes King of Bohemia and Hungary (12) — the 
Lutherans receive the name of Protestants (13) — the Reformation 
in Switzerland (14) — the Diet of Augsburg, ijjo ; the Augsburg 
Confession ;- decree condemning Luthei'' s dod^nnes (15) — the Arch- 
duke Ferdinand is elected King of the Romans {16)— the Schinal- 
kaldic League (i"]) — t/te Tui^ks threaten Gennany ; the Religious 
Peace ofNiirnberg {\%)— foreign wars of Charles V. (i())—fui'ther 
progress of the Refor7nation {20)— Charles V, and the Protestants 
prepare for war (21) — death of Luther (22) — the Schmalkaldic 
war ; triumph of the Empe7''or {2^^ — the Tnteri7n (24) — 7^ebellio7z of 
Maurice of Saxony ; Hen7y LL, of Fra7ice seizes Ger77ia7i lands ; 
flight of Chaj'les V. (25) — the T7xaty of Passau {26) — Cha7des 
V, tries to take the te7'ritory seized by Henry LI., but fails (27) — 
tJie Religious Peace of Augsbuig (28) — abdication and death of 
Cha7'les V, (2())-^political effects of the Refo7'77iatio7i (30) — 
Lite7'atu7x a7id A7't {31). 

I. Election of Charles V. — After Maximilian's death, 



[CH. xiii.] MARTIN LUTHER, 129 

three sovereigns tried to obtain the crown — Henry VIII. of 
England, Francis I, of France, and Charles^ Maximilian's 
grandson. Henry soon withdrew ; but Francis used every 
means in his power to win over the Electors. In 15 19 
Charles was elected, and next year he was crowned at 
Aachen. Charles was already King of Spain and of the 
Two Sicilies; and he held the Low Countries and the 
County of Burgundy. He also shared with his brother 
Ferdinand the Archduchy of Austria and the sister Duchies. 
When, therefore, he was made King of the Romans, he 
became by far the greatest sovereign who had reigned in 
Europe since Charles the Great. Fearing his great power, 
the Electors made him sign a formal deed before his elec- 
tion, in which he confirmed the States in all their rights 
and privileges. This was ' done by every one who became 
King of the Romans, or Emperor, after his time. 

2. Beginnings of the Reformation. Martin Luther. — By 
this time the great movement called the Reforinatioii may 
be said to have begun in Germany. Pope Leo X. had sent 
messengers into Germany to raise money by selling indul- 
gences. By these indulgences men were said to obtain 
remission. of the purgatorial punishment due to sins, even 
sins they intended to commit as well as those already 
committed. John Tetzel^ a Dominican friar, distinguished 
himself in this traffic. Many good men in all parts of 
Germany were shocked at such an abuse of Papal power. 
Amongst these was Marti7t Luther, an Augustinian^monk, 
and professor at the University of Wittenberg, a man of firm 
and upright character, and already well known as a preacher. 
When Tetzel came to Saxony, Luther not only preached 
against him, but, on October 31, 1517, affixed to the door 
of the Castle Church at Wittenberg a thesis, made up of 
ninety-five propositions, in which, among other thingv, he 
denied that the Pope had the power to forgive sins. At this 

I 



I30 CHARLES V. TFIE REFORMATION. [chap. 

time Germany was full of discontent at the state of the 
Church. Since the great struggle between the Empire and 
the Papacy, there had always been a party in Germany 
opposed to the power of the Popes. This party had been 
greatly strengthened by the fact that several very bad men 
had been Popes since the Council of Basel. In Germany 
itself the lives of many of the clergy caused great scandal. 
The prelates were usually in no way different from ordinary 
secular princes ; and very many of the lower clergy were 
idle, ignorant, and men of loose morals. Besides all this, 
the general stir of thought brought about by the revival of 
learning and other causes had made men begin to doubt 
some of the leading doctrines of the Church. The mini- 
strations of the clergy seemed cold and formal to those who 
had come under the influence* of the Mystics; and the 
minds of the people had long been agitated by the discus- 
sions of contending sects. Thus at the very time when 
Luther protested against indulgences, many were ready to 
join heartily in an attack on the Church. His thesis caused 
great excitement ; and a party began almost at once to form 
itself, which demanded a thorough reformation both in 
doctrine and discipline. This party grew quickly-, especially 
in the cities. The opinions of Luther became more and 
more decided, and he spoke them out clearly and fully, and 
thus helped on the movement he had ip a sense begun. The 
Humanists also helped on the Reformation, for they, and 
above ^ all UlHch vo7i Hutte7t^ warred constantly against 
the Pope, and turned against the clergy — especially the 
regular clergy — the whole force of their wit and satire. 

3. Luther is excommunicated, and burns the Pope's 
Bull. — At first Pope Leo paid very little attention to what 
was going on in Germany ; but in 1 5 1 8 Luther had to 
appear at Augsburg before Cardinal Cajetamis^ the Papal 
legate at the Augsburg Diet. The Cardinal demanded 



XIII.] CHARLES V. AND THE REFORMATIOH, 131 

that Luther should retract his errors ; but the latter refused 
to retract anything till his opinions had been proved from 
Scripture to be untrue. This boldness of spirit made 
Luther still more popular, and added to the numbers of 
those who were calling for reform. At last, in 1520, Pope 
Leo issued a Bull in which forty-one propositions from 
Luther's writings were declai-ed heretical ; and he himself 
was excommunicated in case he refused to retract his errors 
within sixty days. Luther replied by a work which he 
called "Against the Bull of Antichrist," and publicly 
burned the Bull in Wittenberg. 

. 4. Charles V. and the Reformation. — Meanwhile, Charles 
V. had been elected King of the Romans. Luthei-'s party 
waited anxiously to see on which side he would declare 
himself. Luther even sent him a letter, urging him to see 
to the reformation of the Church. Had Charles joined the 
reforming party, the whole future history of Germany 
would have been different ; but it was hardly possible that 
he should do so. He had no love for the Papacy as a 
i.-ecular power, as he repeatedly proved during his long 
reign. But he was a sincere Catholic. Besides, he had 
more of the old Imperial feeling than had been displayed 
by any Emperor or King of the Romans for a long time. 
He looked on himself as raised far above all other earthly 
rulers, and wished to bring back the Empire to its old 
grandeur. But if he were to be an Emperor in the sense 
that Charles the Great, Otto L, and Henry IIL were 
Emperors, he was bound to support the Church, for the 
Church and the Empire rested on the same foundations, 
and it was the highest duty and privilege of the secular ruler 
of. the world to defend the spiritual ruler against alibis 
enemies. Charles, therefore, did not hesitate as to which 
side he should take in the great struggle which had. now 
begun, and which threatened to divide Germany into two 



132 CHARLES V. THE REFORMATION, [chap. 

parties far more widely separated from each other than 
Welfs and Wtiiblings in the old days. He would uphold 
the Church, and make it great and^ strong as he intended to 
make the Empire. 

5. Luther before the Diet of Worms. — Charles held his 
first Diet at Wo7^ms, in 1521. The Papal legate wished 
him to take measures against Luther at once ; but the 
Saxon Elector and others urged that it would be unfair to 
condemn any one unheard. Luther was therefore sum- 
moned to appear before the Diet, and received a safe- 
conduct from Charles. On his way to Worms he was 
received everywhere with welcome. Some of his friends, 
remembering the fate of Huss, urged him to turn back ; but 
he replied, " Were there as m_any devils in Worms as there 
are tiles on the houses, I should still go on." When he 
appeared before the Diet, he was asked to retract his 
heresies ; but he answered as he had before done to Cardinal 
Cajetanus. " Here I stand," he said, concluding his state- 
ment, " I cannot do otherwise : God help me. Amen." 
Charles would not break his word, and therefore allowed 
Luther to go away in safety ; but he afterwards issued the 
Edict of Worms, condemning Luther as a heretic, and 
putting to the ban of the Empire all who should support 
him. 

6. The Diet of Worms and civil affairs. — Charles's first 
Diet is memorable for other things besides the appearance of 
Luther before it. The States had often urged Maximilian to 
form an administrative coimcil^ which should aid him in the 
government, and carry it on in his absence. The plan had 
even been tried, but had come to nothing through the 
jealousy of Maximilian. Charles was as unwilling as his 
grandfather to give up any of his power ; but in the end he 
had to yield, and a council was formed, appointed partly by 
himself and partly by the States, which was to act while he 



XIII.] PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION, 133 

was away fi-om Germany. The Diet of Worms also drew 
up a Matricicla^ which settled the number of troops, at a 
certain rate of pay, that were to be raised by the States of 
the realm. This Matricula continued in force till the 
fall of the Empire. Before the Diet broke up Charles 
divided the hereditary Austrian lands between himself and 
his brother Ferdinand. Soon afterwards Ferdinand received 
all these lands, and thus became the founder of the Atistrian 
branch of the house of Habsburg, while Charles became the 
founder of the Spanish branch. 

7. Charles V. and Francis I. — Immediately after the 
Diet of Worms, Charles left Germany, and he did not come 
back for about eight years. During this time his thoughts 
were chieHy taken up by his great struggle with Francis I 
of France, who had seized the Y)\xQ}iiy oi Milan, In 1525 
Francis was made prisoner at the battle of Pavia. He w^as 
taken to Madrid^ and was not set free till he had agreed to 
very hard terms ; but he did not keep the treaty he had 
signed. At last, after repeated defeats, he had to give up 
for a time all hope of gaining a footing in Italy ; and 
in 1529 the Peace of Cambray was concluded. In 1530 
Charles was crowned Emperor and King of Italy at ^<?/^^72<^. 
After him no Emperor received the Imperial crown from a 
Pope. 

8. Progress of the Reformation. — As Luther v/as on his 
way home from Worms, he was taken, by order of Frederick 
of Saxony, to the Wartburg^ near Eiseiiach. Frederick 
wished him to stay there in quiet till the storm he had raised 
had to some extent passed away. In Luther's absence some 
of his friends began to act in a way he did not approve of. 
In 1522, therefore, he left the Wartburg, and went to 
Wittenberg, where he again took his place as leader of the 
Reformation. He published a translation of the 'New 
Testament, which he had written in the Wartburg, and 



134 CHARLES V. THE REFORMATION, [chap. 

afterwards translated the whole Bible. He also wrote man3/ 
theological books which were read in all parts of Germany. 
Thus his doctrines became more and more popular, and 
were adopted by several powerful princes, among whom 
were John^ Elector of Saxony, Frederick's successor, and 
Philips Landgrave of Hessen. Some great Imperial cities 
also became Lutheran. In 1525 Luther married Catherine 
oi Bora, a nun. His example was followed by many of the 
clergy who sided with him, so that the breach between the 
reforming party and the Church went on widening. Charles 
by no means gave up his purpose of crushing the Lutheran 
heresy ; but while he was fighting with Francis I. he 
had little time to think of Germany, and he could not 
afford just then to make the States who supported Luther 
his enemies. In 1526 a Diet met at Speyer, presided over 
by the Archduke Ferdinand, which ended by agreeing that, 
till a General Council should be summoned, the government 
of each State should be allowed to act in religious matters as 
it saw fit. After this the Elector John, Landgrave Philip, 
and other princes, made great changes • in the Church in 
their dominions. They brought in new forms of Church 
government, did away with the saying of Mass, caused 
religious services to be conducted in the language of the 
people, and gave a much higher place to preaching than it 
had hitherto held. Convents were suppressed ; and Church 
lands were seized, and only in part applied to ecclesiastical 
uses. Of course Luther took a prominent part in bringing 
about these changes. Llis chief helper was his friend 
Melaiichthon, a man of much gentler character than himself, 
but one of the ablest and most learned of the Reformers. 

9. Franz von Sickingen. — One of Luther's earliest and 
best friends was Franz von Sickingen, a famous knight. 
He offered to protect the Reformer in his castle of Ebern- 
burg^ in case his life should be endangered. In 1522, 



XIII.] THE WAR OF THE PEASANTRY. 135 

Sickingen made war on the Elector of Trier, Luthe^ 
entreated him to remam at peace ; but he collected ar 
army of 12,000 men^ entered the Electorate, and laid great 
part of it waste. A large number of knights joined him. 
This class v/as profoundly discontented with the rule of the 
princes, and vaguely hoped, under Sickingen's guidance, to 
improve its position. The Elector of Trier, however, was 
aided by the Elector Palatine and Landgrave Philip of 
Hessen. Sickingen was defeated, and in 1523 besieged in 
his castle of LandsstuJil. This was soon taken ; and in a 
few days afterwards he died, having been severely wounded. 
Ulrich von Hutten, who had warmly supported Sickingen, 
went to Sv/itzerland after the death of his friend. In a few 
months he also died. 

10. The War of the Peasantry. — We have seen that the 
peasantry were as a rule very ill used by the princes. By 
the heavy taxes laid on them they were kept in utter poverty, 
and their fields were often destroyed by hunting-parties. 
No class in Germany joined the Reformation mcu'e heartily. 
They hoped that it might somehow help them to obtain their 
rights, for by the freedom of which Luther and the other 
Reformxers spoke so much they understood political and 
social as well as spiritual freedom. In 1524 a great 
rising took place among them in Swabiaj and it soon passed 
to Fra7ico7iia^ Els ass, and Thurirtgia. Never had the 
peasantry seemed so near throwing off the yoke under which 
they had lain for centuries. . Some knights — among others 
Gotz vojt Berlichingen — ^joined them. They looked to 
Luther for help ; but although a Reformer in the Church, he 
had no wish to see changes brought about in the State, and 
not only refused to help the peasants, but sided strongly 
with the princes and urged them to put down the rebellion 
by force. Unhappily, the peasants hurt their own cause by 
rashness and violence. At last, in 1525, a number of prince? 



136 CHARLES V. THE REFO.RMA TION. [chap. 

united against them, and in several battles thoroughly 
defeated them. The rising v/as thus utterly crushed, and the 
burdens laid on the peasantry, instead of being lessened, 
were, if possible, made heavier than before. 

1 1 . Albert of Brandenburg becomes Duke of Prussia.— 
When the Reformation began, the Grand Master of the 
Teutonic Order was Albert^ a. prince of the house of 
Brandenburg, He became a Lutheran, and in 1525 made 
a treaty with Sigmund /., King of Poland, whereby the 
Teutonic Order came to an end as a sovereign power, and 
Albert received the eastern part of Prussia in fief of Sig- 
mund as a hereditary Duchy. The Teutonic Order looked 
on Albert's conduct as treachery ; but he kept the new 
Duchy, and handed it on to his children. In the end, as 
we shall see, it passed into the hands of the electoral branch 
of the Brandenburg family, and became independent of 
Poland. 

12. The Archduke Ferdinand becomes King- of Bohemia 
and Hungary. — In 1522 the Archduke Ferdinand had 
married a daughter of Wladislatts^ King> of Bohemia and 
Hungary. Lewis LL.^ the son and successor of Wladislaus, 
was killed at the battle of Mohacs in 1526. Ferdinand v/as 
then elected and crowned King oi Bohemia. He was after- 
wards chosen, by a party of Hungarian nobles. King of 
LLu7tgary. Another party had already raised John^ 
Waiwode of Trans silvania^ to the Hungarian throne. 
This double election gave rise to war, in the course of 
which John craved help from the Sultan Suleyvian^ and 
consented to hold the crown as his vassal. Suleyman 
came to Hungary in 1529, at the head of a great army, and 
not only overran the country, but entered Austria, and 
besieged Vie7tna, which, however, he was unable to take. 
Even after Suleyman left Austria and Hungary, Ferdinand 
was not acknowledged by the whole Hungarian nation ; but 



XIII.] THE REFORM A TION IN SWITZERLAND. 137 

his party continued to support him. From this time the 
crown of Hungary was ahvays held by an Archduke of 
Austria. It was still for some time nominally elective ; but 
in the end it was made hereditary. The house of Austria 
also always held Bohemia after Ferdinand's time. Thus 
the German branch of the Austrian family became very 
great, and took its place, apart from the Imperial crown, 
as one of the leading powers of Europe. 

13. The Lutherans receive the name of ^* Protestants." — 
The Reformation had made so much progress, and the 
refonning party had given up so many old beliefs and 
ceremonies, that the Catholics w^ere now thoroughly 
alarmed, and Charles was more than ever resolved to do 
everything he could to uphold the Church. In 1529 the 
Diet again mxt at Speyer under the presidency of the 
Archduke Ferdinand. As there were more Catholics than 
Lutherans present, a decree was passed forbidding further 
changes in religion, and requiring that Mass should be said 
in all churches. The Lutheran princes and cities entered 
a formal protest against this decree, whence they were 
called Protestants — a name w^hich was afterwards given to 
all who had left the Church of Rome. 

14. The Reformation in Svvitzerland. — Meanwhile a 
Reformation had been going on in some Swiss Cantons 
which was not guided by Luther. It was begun in Zurich 
in 1 5 19 by Ulrich Zwingli^ who differed in some points 
from Luther, especially as to the nature of the Lord's 
Supper. A controversy arose between the two theologians 
and their followers, and a very bitter feeling sprang up. 
In 1529 Luther and Zwingli met at Marburg; but no 
understanding was arrived at. In the end two churches 
were formed, the Lut?i,era7i and the Reforjned^ each of 
which disliked the other for a long time almost as much 
as both disliked the Catholics. 



138 CHARLES V, THE REFORMATION. [chap. 

15. The Diet of Aug-sburg, 1530. — When Charles had 
driven the French from Italy, and received the Imperial 
crown, he at last turned his thoughts seriously to Germany. 
In 1530 he crossed the Alps, and opened a great Diet at 
Aiigsburg. He hoped to gain over the chief Lutheran 
states without much difficulty, but he soon found that he 
had mistaken the strength of the new movement. The 
Lutherans laid before the Diet a statement of their belief? 
which had been drawn up by Melanchthon, and approved 
by Luther. This statement was afterwards called the 
Augsburg Confession, and became the chief standard of 
faith among the Lutheran churches. A great deal of dis- 
cussion went on between the two parties ; but neither side 
would give way. At last the Elector John and Landgrave 
Philip left Augsburg, Soon afterv/ards Charles issued a 
decree in which he condemned the Lutheran heresy, and 
commanded all who had accepted it to return to their 
allegiance to the Church. All Church property that had 
been seized was to be given back, and suppressed convents 
were again to be set up. Those who recused to obey this 
decree were to be put to the ban of the Empire. 

16. The Archduke Ferdinand is elected King of tha 
Romans.— As the administrative council had been friendly 
to the Lutherans, the Catholics wished that a King of the 
Romans might be appointed, and urged Charles to get one 
elected. He proposed his brother Fe7^di7iand to the 
Electors. John of Saxony opposed the election ; but the 
other Electors voted for Ferdinand, and he was crowned at 
Aachen in 1531. 

17. The Schmalkaldic League. — While the negotiations 
for Ferdinand's election were going on, the Lutheran princes 
met at Schmalkalden, and formed a League for mutual 
defence. After the election they met again, and confirmed 
their League, which was joined also by the Lutheran cities. 



XIII.] THE RELIGIOUS PEACE OF NURNBERG. 139 

This League was called the Sch7nalkaldic League, Some 
of its members would at once have appealed to arms ; but 
the more moderate opposed this, so that war was for a time 
avoided. 

18. The Religious Peace of Niirnberg. The Turks. — 
Although Suleyman went back to Constantinople in 1529, 
he did not intend to leave Hungary and Germany in peace. 
In 1532 he returned at the head of a much greater arm.y 
than before. His approach caused great alarm ; but 
the Lutheran princes refused to help Charles unless he 
withdrew the decree of Augsburg. Charles v\^as very un- 
willing to yield ; but it was necessary that he should raise 
a force strong enough to drive back the Turks. In 1532, 
therefore, he granted the Religious Peace of Nilriiberg^ by 
which full freedom of worship was given to the Lutherans 
until a General Council or the next Diet should have met. 
The Lutheran States then hastened to join the Emperor 
against the Turks. Suleym^an, finding all parties united 
against him, hastily marched back to his. own dominions. 
Afterwards, however, the Turks returned to Hungary, sup- 
ported the party opposed to Ferdinand, and conquered a 
large part of the country. 

19. Foreign Wars of Charles V. — During his second 
absence from Germany, Charles made two famous expedi- 
tions against Hayraddiji Ba?'barossa, a pirate who had 
made himself master of Algiei^s and TM7tis, and held many 
thousands of Christians as prisoners. During part of the 
interval between these expeditions, Charles had to carry on 
another war with Francis I., who again laid claim to the 
Duchy of Milan. A truce was concluded for ten years at 
Nice in 1538 ; but in 1542 war broke out again. In 1544 
the Peace of Crespy was concluded, and after this there 
was no more open war between the two sovereigns. 

20. Further progress of the Reformation. — The Reforma- 



I40 CHARLES V. THE REFORMATION. [chap. 

tion continued to make progress, especially in the north of 
Germany. Joachim IL, Elector of Brande7ibu7'g^ who 
succeeded his father, a bigoted Catholic, in 1534, became 
a Lutheran. Frederick IL, Elector Palatine, and Duke 
George of Saxojiy, also brought the Lutheran doctrine into 
their dominions. Even Archbishop Herman7i of K'dhi had 
sympathy with the Reformation, and did nothing to put it 
down among his subjects. Thus nearly all the northern 
part of Germany became Lutheran. In the south Wiirtem- 
berg was Protestant. Duke Ulrich of Wiirtemberg had 
been driven from his dominions in 1520 by the Swabian 
League, but was restored in 1534 by the intervention of 
Landgrave Philip of Hessen. 

21. Charles V. and the Lutherans prepare for war. — 
So long as Charles was at war with Francis L or the Turks, 
and needed the help of all the German States, he did 
nothing to offend the Lutherans. He even confirmed more 
than once the Peace of Niirnberg. But he never really 
gave up his purpose of crushing out heresy in Germany. 
At last, when the peace of Crespy had been signed, in 1 544, 
he felt he was strong enough to undertake the- task in 
earnest. He had got Pope Paul II. to summon a General 
Council ; and it met at Trent in 1 545. The Lutherans 
refused to recognise it, on the ground that the Pope was 
a party to the dispute, and had already condemned them 
as heretics. Charles therefore began secretly to prepare 
for war, and made a treaty with the Pope, by which the 
latter undertook to help him with men and money. He 
succeeded in getting the Elector of Brandenburg, the 
Elector Palatine, and other Lutheran princes to remain 
neutral ; and with Maurice^ Duke of Saxony, Duke 
George's successor, he made a separate treaty. The 
Schmalkaldic League^ however, remained true to its 
principles ; and its leading members began, like the 



xili.] THE SCHMALKALDIC WAR. 14? 



Emperor, to collect^ troops. Charles tried hard to make 
the Lutheran cities behleve that he did not intend to war 
against their religion, but only against certain rebellious 
princes. But they, distrusting him, raised an army, and 
placed it under Sebastian Schdrtlin^ one of the greatest 
generals of the day. 

22. Death of Luther. — Before war actually broke out, 
Luther died in 1 546 at Eisleben^ whither he had gone to 
settle a dispute between the Counts of Ma7isfeld. He had 
striven to preserve peace ; but the movement he had 
started had long passed to some extent beyond his control. 

23. The Schmalkaldic War. — The v/ar began in the 
summer of 1 546. Charles was then at Rege7tsbzcrg, where 
he had for some time been holding a Diet. If the Lutheran 
leaders had acted vigorously, they might have gained an 
advantage at once, for at first the Emperor had a much 
smaller body of troops than they. But they were dis- 
united, and wavered so much in their plans that the Papal 
troops and an army from the Low Countries both managed 
to join Charles. The latter acted with much energy. In 
a few months he had conquered all the free Imperial cities 
connected with the Schmalkaldic League. Meanwhile the 
Lutheran princes had separated, and gone with their troops 
to their own territories. In 1547 Charles defeated the 
Saxon army in the battle of Milhlbefg^ and took the 
Elector John Frederick prisoner. Philip of Hessen, seeing 
that he had then no chance of success, yielded, and was 
also kept as a prisoner by Charles. The Schmalkaldic 
War thus ended in the complete triumph of the Emperor. 

24. The Interim. — In 1548 Charles held a Diet at 
Augsburg^ before which he laid a plan for uniting the 
Lutherans to the Church, known as the Interim. Some 
few points were yielded to the Lutherans ; but on the 
whole matters were to return very much to the position in 



142 CHARLES K THE REFORM A TION. [chap. 

which they had been before the Reformation be;jan. No 
one in the Diet formally opposed this plan. Charles there- 
fore acted as if it had become law, and insisted on its 
beins: introduced into all the Lutheran States. Most of the 
Lutheran princes nominally accepted the Interim. The 
Lutheran cities resisted for a time ; but in the end they 
also were compelled to yield. 

25. Charles V. and the Elector Maurice. — The position 
of Charles now seemed very splendid. He had broken up 
the Schmalkaldic League, and had forced on the Lutherans 
a scheme which was meant to undo everything they had 
done towards the reformation of the Church. In reality 
he was by no means so safe as he seemed. He had 
made Duke Maurice the successor of John Frederick in 
the Electorate of Saxony. For a time this young prince, 
whose motives it is not always easy to understand, seemed 
to be the Ernperor's best friend. Gradually his feelings 
changed, and he resolved to turn against Charles, and to 
become the upholder of the Lutheran faith. He got some 
other princes to join him, but, what was more important, he 
made a secret treaty with Henry II. of France, whereby the 
latter undertook to help him against the Emperor. Suddenly? 
in 1552, when Charles was at Innsbruck., Maurice began to 
march southwards with a large army, part of which he had 
been put at the head of for the purpose of compelling 
Magdeburg to accept the Interim. At the same time Henry 
n. entered Lorraine as "'Protector of the Liberties of 
Ger7na7ty^^ and seized the three bishopricks of Metz^ Tout, 
and Verdun. Charles was wholly unprepared to ineet this 
sudden movement. He had raised the fears of even the. 
Catholic States by the greatness of his power, and had 
offended them by trying to get his son Philip elected King 
of the Romans in place of his brother Ferdinand. Thus 
not a single Catholic prince or city offered to help him in 



xiii.] THE TREATY OF PASSAU. 143 



his hour of need, and he who had just seemed so great had 
to fly, as Maurice approached, in order to escape being 
made prisoner. He did not feel himself safe even in Trent^ 
but pressed forward over wild mountain paths, accompanied 
by only a few follow^ers, till he reached the village of Villach^ 
in Carinthia. 

26. The Treaty of Passau. — Although he was brought 
so low, Charles was very unwilling to yield to the demands 
of Maurice. At length he was persuaded to do so, and 
signed the Treaty of Passaic. By this treaty he lost all 
he had gained in the Schmalkaldic War, for he had to 

•promise that a Diet should be summoned wdthin six 
months for the settlement of religious disputes, that mean- 
w^iile those who held the An-gsbtcrg Confessio?i should be 
ailovred full freedom of worship, that Lutherans should be 
admitted with Catholics as members of the Imperial 
Chamber, and that if the forthcoming Diet should fail to 
reconcile Lutherans and Catholics the stipulations in favour 
of the former should continue in force for ever. 

27. Charles V. and Henry H. of France. — When peace 
had been restored in Gemiany, Charles at once gathered an 
army for the purpose of winning back the district in Lor- 
raine seized by Henr>^ II. Metz w^as besieged for some 
months, but could not be taken. In the end the three 
bishopricks were allowed to remain in the hands of the 
French King. Thus France, w^hich had already got pos- 
session of the greater part of the kingdom of Burgundy, 
began to increase its territory at the expense of Germany. 

28. The Religious Peace of Augsburg. — The Diet which 
the Emperor had promised to summon met in Augsburg in 
1555. After much discussion, it concluded the Religious 
Peace of Aicgsbtirg. This Peace freed the Protestants 
from the jurisdiction of the prelates, allowed them to 
keep the ecclesiastical property that had been seized. 



144 CHARLES V. THE REFORMA TION. [chap. 

and gave- to the government of eacli State the right to 
set up either the Cathohc or Protestant rehgion. A 
State might tolerate both religions if it chose ; but each 
prince received the right to drive out those who did not 
agree with him in religion. The treaty also provided that 
if a spiritual prince became a Protestant he should at once 
have to give up his ofiice and its revenues. This was called 
the Ecclesiastical Reservation^ and was not allowed by 
Protestants to be binding upon them. 

29. Abdication and death of Charles V. — Charles had for 
some time failed in almost all his schemes, and his health 
was quite broken. He resolved, therefore, to give up his 
various crowns, and to spend his last years in private life. 
In 1555 he made over the Low Countries, and in 1556 
Spain and the Two Sicilies, to his son Philip. He still 
hoped to get Philip elected King of the Romans ; but in the 
end he saw that all parties were opposed to this, and in the 
autumn of 1556 gave up the government of Germany to 
King Ferdinand. After this Charles had no more to do 
with Germany. He died in 1558, in a small building near 
the monastery of Sail Yuste^ in Estremaduray whither he 
had retired after his abdication. 

30. Political effects of the Reformation. — There were 
now two parties strongly opposed to each other in Germany, 
the Catholics and the Protestants. A sort of peace had 
been patched up between them ; but they were as far as 
possible from being reconciled. The Catholics continued 
to look on the Church property which Protestants had 
seized as rightfully theirs ; and each party believed the 
other to hold deadly error. The Emperor did not hold the 
position of an impartial judge between the two parties. He 
was not only a Catholic, but in virtue of his office the 
Protector of the Catholic Church. The Protestants there- 
fore came to look on him as an enemy to be watched and 



XIII.] LITERATURE AND ART. 145 

opposed. The Protestant princes had thus a new motive 
for trying to weaken the Imperial authority ; and in this 
the Cathohc princes were not unwilhng to join them. From 
the time of Charles, therefore, the Imperial government 
became weaker and weaker, while the States became more 
and more independent. Even the Diet lost most of its 
power. Any proposal laid before it was sure to be opposed 
by one party or the other, so that it could do very little. 
The courts of justice were also weakened by the difficulty 
of appointing judges and assessors trusted by both parties. 

31. Literature and Art. — The writings of Luther are by 
far the most important literary works of the time of the 
Reformation. They — and especially the translation of the 
Bible— were so much read that the High- Dutch dialect in 
which they were written became the literary dialect of 
Germany for all future time. The writer whose works were 
most read next to those of Luther was the poet Hans Sachs ^ 
a shoemaker of Niirnberg. He wrote many pieces, and did 
good service to the Reformation by his wit and humour. 
There were several great painters in Germany about this 
time. Of these the chief wq^vq Albert Diirer^ Hans Ho Idem, 
and Lucas Kranach. Music was also a good deal culti- 
vated ; and some fine buildings were erected in the so- 
called Renaissance stvle. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 

Ferdinand I. tries to conciliate the Protestants ; the Protestants 
divided among themselves ; death of Ferdinand I, ( i ) — progress of 
Protestantism during the reign of Maximilian II. ; his death (2) 
— Rudolf II. a violent Catholic ; power of the Jesuits; weak 
govern?nent of Rudolf II, ; his brothers recognize Matthias as 
head of the House (3) — the P7^otestant Union and the Catholic 
League; the Elector of Brandenburg bee 07nes Duke of Prussia (4) 
— Rudolf II concedes religious freedom to Boheinia : his death (5) 
— Matthias crowned; Ferdinand of Styria made his coadjutor (6) 
■ — disturbances in Bohemia; death of Alatthias (7) — Frederick 
v.. Elector Palatine, chosen King of Bohemia; Ferdinand 
crowned E77tperor ; war with Bohemia; the Bohefnians de- 
feated; punishment of Bohemia (8) — progress of the war ; 
apparejit trittfnph of the Emperor (9) — renewal of the war ; 
Albert von Wallenstein raises an army ; his victories ; he is 
unable to take Stralsu7id (10) — the edict of Restitutio 7t (ll) — 
dis7nissal of Wallenstei7i ; Gustavus Adolphus comes to the help of 
the Protesta7its ; defeat of Tilly (12) — Gustavus defeats Tilly a 
seco7td ti7?ie, a7id takes possessio7i of Munich (13) — Wallenstein 
7'aises a seco7id a7'7ny ; battle of Liitzen ; death of Gicstavus 
Adolphus (14) — 77turder of Walle7istein (15) — treaty of Axel 
Oxe7istie7'7t with Ca7'dinal Richelieu (16) — death of Fe7'di7iand 
II ; progress of the war (17) — the Peace of Westphalia ; te7'rible 
results of the war; no party satisfied with the peace ; gai7is of 
Fra7ice and Sweden; independence of Switee7'land and the U7iited 
Provinces recognized; clianges withitt Germany (18) — indepen- 



[CH. XIV.] FERDINAND /. 147 

dence of the princes ; power of the Diet ; it becomes a permanent 
body (19) — International Law (20) — Literatu7'e and Science (21) 
— Superstitious (22). 

1. Ferdinand I. — Ferdinand was crowned in 1558. He 
did not receive the Imperial crown from the Pope ; but he 
took the title of Emperor immediately after he ascended the 
throne of Germany. In this his example was followed by 
all German Kings who came after him. He was acknow- 
ledged by the Pope on condition that he should not observe 
the Treaty of Augsburg ; but Ferdinand knew the strength 
of Protestantism, and he was too much taken up with the 
affairs of Hungary to raise up enemies needlessly. He tried 
to make the Protestants as friendly towards him as possible, 
and would have been glad if the Coimcil of Trent had given 
way to them on some points. The Protestants were now 
broken up into parties. The Lutheran and Reformed 
Churches were very jealous of each other ; and the former 
was divided into a moderate and an extreme party. These 
divisions did much harm ; but in spite of them Protest- 
antism made great progress. After doing his utmost to 
keep the Empire in peace, Ferdinand died in 1 564. 

2. Maximilan II. — Ferdinand had broken up the Habs" 
burg possessions into three unequal parts, giving one to each 
of his sons. The eldest, Maximilian^ who received Austria 
proper and became King of Bohemia and Hungaiy, suc- 
ceeded Ferdinand as King of Germany and as Emperor. 
During his reign the Jesuits — an order recently instituted 
— worked hard to keep Protestantism from spreading ; but 
Maximilian was a man of very enlightened opinions, and 
had no wish to favour the Catholics any more than his 
other subjects. He was even suspected of being a Lutheran. 
The result of his mild government was that even in Austria 
Protestantism became very powerful, and that it increased 



148 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. 

its strength in all other parts of Germany. The larger 
number of Germans were now probably members of one 
or other of the Protestant Churches. So many adopted 
arms as a profession at this time that Maximilian wished 
to prevent foreign States from enlisting troops in Germany ; 
but the Diet would not consent to this, and the country 
suffered a great deal from large numbers of " Landsknechte'^ 
who were too idle to live by honest industry. Maximilian 
died in 1 576, having got his son Rudolf some time before 
elected King of the Romans. 

3. Rudolf II. — Rudolf was very different from his fathei 
and grandfather. He had been brought up in the Spanish 
Court, and was of a gloomy disposition. He was a bigoted 
Catholic, and most anxious to root out the new faith from 
his hereditary lands. The Jesuits became very powerful, 
and redoubled their efforts against Protestantism. Rudolf, 
however, was a man of weak will, and although he issued 
many decrees against the- Lutherans, they never came to 
anything. His weakness was such that Imperial govern- 
ment, and government in his hereditary possessions, were 
at last almost at an end. His kinsmien became' seriously 
alarmed for the power of their House, and wished to appoint 
a colleague or successor to the Emperor. Roused by these 
proposals, Rudolf tried to prove that he could still rule, by 
taking strong measures against the Protestants in Bohemia 
and Hungary. The Hungarians were so oppressed that 
they appealed for help to the Turks, vvho were always only 
too glad to find an opportunity to injure the Plouse of Habs- 
burg. The Archdukes met in 1606, and formally acknow- 
ledged Matthias^ the Emperor's brother, as head of the 
House. Spain assented to this arrangement. Rudolf was 
still Emperor ; but he was forced to resign all his dominions 
except Bohemia to Matthias. 

4. The Protestant Union and the Catholic League. The 



XIV.] PROTESTANT UNIONS CA TIIOLICLE. CUE. 149 

Elector of Brandenburg becomes Duke of Prussia. — Many 

Protestants were alarmed by the attempts Rudolf had 

made to put them down, and especially by his allowing 

the Duke of Bavaria to seize the free city of Doiiatrjuorth^ 

formerly a Bavarian town, and make it Catholic. In 1608 

a number of Protestants joined together and formed, 

for ten years, a league called TJie Ujuoji. Its formation 

was due chiefly to the exertions of Prince CJiristiaii 

of Anhalt, who had busily intrigued with Henry IV. of 

France ; but its head was the Elector Palatine. As 

the latter belonged to the Reformed Church, the Lu- 

.therans for the most part treated the Union coldly ; and 

the Elector of Saxony would have nothing to do with it. It 

soon had an opportunity of acting. Duke William of 

Jiilich^ who held Jiilich, Cleve, and other lands, died in 

1609. John Sigmund, Elector of Brandenburg, and the 

Palsgrave of Neuburg, both members of the Union, claimed 

to be his heirs, and took possession of his lands. The 

Emperor Rudolf sent his brother, the Archduke Leopold^ 

Bishop of Passau^ to drive out these princes. The Union 

thereupon formed an alliance v»dth He?try IV. of France, and, 

coming to the aid of its members, scattered the forces of 

the Archduke in 1610. The Catholics now took fright, and 

hastened to form a League which should hold the Union in 

checlc It was formed for nine years, and the supreme 

command was given to Maximiliaii^ Duke of Bavaria. 

The death of Henry IV. took away from the Union its 

chief source of strength, so that it shrank from a general 

war. The two princes, however, who had given rise to 

the quarrel, kept for a time the Jiilich-Cleve territory. In 

161 1 the power of the Elector of Brandenburg was further 

increased by his succeeding to the Duchy of Prussia. From 

this time East Prussia was always joined to the Mark or 

Electorate of Brandenburg. It was now, therefore, that the 



I50 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. 

house of Brandenburg laid the foundations of its future 
greatness. 

5. The Letter of Majesty. Death of Rudolf II.— 
Matthias, in order to pacify the Austrian States, granted 
them full religious liberty. In 1609 the Bohemian States 
also obtained from Rudolf a Royal Charter, called The 
Letter of Majesty^ conceding to nobility, knights and towns 
perfect freedom in religious matters, and the right to build 
Protestant churches and schools on their own and on the 
royal lands. Bohemia showed no gratitude for this favour. 
Suspecting his designs, the Bohemians even shut Rudolf up 
in his castle at Prague in 161 1, and asked Matthias to come 
to their aid. He did so, and seized the supreme power. 
Next year Rudolf died. 

6. Matthias. — Matthias was crowned at Frankfurt with 
great pomp, but he was no better fitted for the throne than 
his brother. He was compelled to yield much to the 
Protestants, yet favoured the Jesuits in their continued 
efforts to convert Germany. His government was so feeble 
that his brothers at length made him accept Ferdinand^ 
Duke of Styria, as his coadjutor. In 161 7 Ferdinand was 
elected as Rudolfs successor to the crowns of Bohemia 
and Hungary ; and from this time all real power in the 
Habsburg possessions was wielded by him. Ferdinand 
was a young man, but had already given proof of great 
energy of character. He was most anxious to become 
Emperor after the death of Matthias, and hoped to bring 
back the Empire to something like its old power and great- 
ness. The Protestants looked forward with dread to his 
reign if he should receive the Imperial crown. Styria had 
become almost wholly Lutheran. When Ferdinand suc- 
ceeded his father, he had driven out the Protestant families, 
and made the land altogether Catholic. No Catholic 
prince had ever shown himself more reckless as to the 



XIV.] DISTURBANCES IN BOHEMIA, 151 

means by which he served his Church. The Protestants, 
therefore, had good reason to fear that if he became 
Emperor he would renev/ the pohcy of Charles V., and 
try to bring back the old state of things, in which there was 
but one Church as there was but one Empire. Events 
proved that these fears were well founded. 

7. Disturbances in Bohemia. Death of Matthias. — 
The last days of Matthias were very troubled. Two 
Protestant churches were built in Bohemia, one in the 
territory of the Archbishop of Prague, the other in that of 
the Abbot of Braunau. These princes, with permission of 
-the Emperor, pulled down one of the churches, and shut 
up the other. The Protestants complained; but their 
appeal was met by the reply that the Letter of Majesty 
did not permit them to build churches on the lands of 
ecclesiastics. This answer excited great indignation in 
Bohemia ; and a rumour was got up that it had not 
come from the Emperor, but had been written in Prague. 
On May 23, 161 8, a num^ber of Protestants, headed by 
Count Thitrii^ marched to the Council Hall of the Royal 
Castle, and demanded to be told the real facts. When 
the councillors hesitated, two of them, with the private 
secretary, were seized, and thrown out of the window. 
The Protestants then took possession of the Royal Castle, 
drove the Jesuits out of Bohem^ia, and appointed a council 
of thirty nobles to carry on the government. Matthias 
would have made peace ; but Ferdinand refused to do so, 
and began at once to gather troops. The Union sent 
Count Ma7isfeld^ a distinguished soldier, with 3,000 men to 
aid the Bohemians. They themselves, led by Count 
Thurn, actively prepared to defend their rights. In the 
midst of these disturbances, Matthias died in 15 19. 

8. Ferdinand II. War with Bohemia. — The Boheniians 
refused to accept Ferdinand as King, and chose F7'ede7^ick V, 



152 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. [chap. 

of the Palatinate. They did so, partly because the young 
prince was believed to be bold and generous, partly because 
they hoped his father-in-law, James I, of England, would 
help them in the approaching struggle. Meanwhile 
Ferdinand went to Frankfurt, and there had his wish 
gratified by being elected and crowned Emperor. He 
resolved utterly to crush Protestantism in Bohemia, and 
afterwards to attack it in all parts of the Empire. On his 
way to Frankfurt he had visited Maximilian^ Duke of 
Bavaria, and come to an understanding with him that, if 
the Union should support Bohemia, the Catholic League 
would take arms on the side of the Emperor. He also 
obtained promises of help from Spain. The young King 
of Bohemia, instead of putting forth every effort to 
meet his great enemy, wasted his time and energies in 
frivolous amusements, and wantonly offended the religious 
scruples of many of his subjects. The Protestant States 
of Germany acted with shameful indifference. The Elector 
of Saxony was easily bought over by the Emperor ; 
and the Union, seeing that the war was likely to be a 
fierce one, agreed to disarm before the struggle began. 
Thus the Bohemians had to trust to themselves. In 
1620 they were defeated in a great battle on the Weisseii- 
berg^ near Prague, by Count Tilly^ Duke Maximilian's 
general, an able soldier troubled with few scruples as 
to the means by which he gained his ends. Frederick, 
who was called the Wi7iter King^ fled with his family. He 
was put to the ban of the Empire, and his lands were held 
by Spanish troops. Ferdinand dealt with Bohemia as 
hardly any land has been treated in modern times. Many 
of the Protestant leaders were put to death ; lands were 
confiscated ; the Protestant clergy were banished ; and in 
the end every form of worship except the Catholic was 
forbidden. Bohemia quite changed its character. It ceased 



XIV.] ALBERT VO.V WALLENSTEIN. 153 



to be a seat of learning, and its commerce was ruined. An 
attempt was made to treat Upper Austria with the same 
severity. In 1626 a Peasants' Insurrection took place there, 
and was put- down with difficulty by the Austrian and 
Bavarian troops. 

9. Progress of the war. — The war was continued, on the 
part of the Protestants, by Count Maiisfeld^ Christiait of 
Anhalt^ and other nobles, with bands of troops made up of 
men who often cared less for the objects of the war than for 
the opportunities of plunder which it afforded. Tilly was 
defeated in 1622, but he afterwards overthrew both Mans- 
feld and Christian, and obliged them for a time to disband 
their forces. In 1622 the Union was broken up ; and in the 
following year the Emperor attached Duke Maximilian 
more closely to himself by raising him to the electoral 
dignity which the Elector Palatine was supposed to have 
forfeited. Surrounded by powerful friends, and with his 
enemies crushed, the Emperor appeared to have overcome 
all obstacles ; but in reality the Thirty Year^ War had 
begun, and it was to prove one of the most fearful struggles 
in history. 

10. Albert von Wallenstein. — Other Protestants besides 
those of Germany now began to watch Ferdinand with 
alarm. Christian IV. of Denmark tried to unite the northern 
powers against him ; but the scheme failed, mainly through 
the indecision of James I. of England. Count Mansfeld, 
Christian of Anhalt, and others,, were, however, sufficiently 
supported to enable them once more to take the field ; and 
they were powerfully aided by Christian IV., who was 
placed at the head of the army of the Circle of Lower 
Saxony. Up to this time the Emperor's troops had done 
little in the war. It had been carried on almost solely by 
the army of the Catholic League, led by Tilly. Ferdinand 
was anxious to raise an Imperial force, but was too poor to 



154 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. 

clo so. At last a wealthy nobleman, Aldert von Wallenstein^ 
came forward, and offered to gather an army on condition 
that he should have the supreme command. The Emperor 
accepted his services, stipulating that the men should be 
paid, not from the Imperial revenues, but by the plunder of 
conquered lands. Wallenstcin soon had at his command 
an army of 30,000 men. With these he attacked Count 
Mansfeld in 1627 at Dessau^ and defeated him. Mansfeld 
died soon aftervvards. Christian of Anhalt died in the 
same year ; and the Danish King was routed at Lutter by 
Tilly with the army of the League. Wallenstein pursued 
Christian IV., who was compelled to ask for peace. The 
two victorious generals then overran Holstein and Mecklen- 
burg. Wallenstein was made Duke of the latter State, and 
probably intended to win over the Hansa tov/ns, partly by 
bribery, partly by force, to the Imperial side, so that Austria 
should be as great by sea as by land. For this purpose he 
tried to make himself master of Stralsundj but the brave 
town held out, and Wallenstein had to retire after having 
suffered great loss. Peace was finally concluded with 
Christian at Liibeck in 1629. 

11. The Edict of Restitution. — In spite of the check 
received at Stralsund, the Emperor now seemed to have 
reached almost the summit of his wishes. Nearly all Ger- 
many appeared to be in his power. He took advantage of 
his position to issue an edict called the Edict of RestittUioii. 
Two archbishopricks, tv/elve bishopricks, and other ecclesi- 
astical lands had fallen into the hands of the Protestants 
since the Treaty of Passau. By the Edict of Restitution, 
Ferdinand decreed that all these should be given back to 
the Catholic Church. This did not contradict the letter of 
the Passau Treaty ; but it was felt by all Protestants to be 
an act of gross tyranny. 

12. Dismissal of Wallenstein. Gustavus Adolphus. — 



xiv.J GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. I5f 

Duke Maximilian and other princes were jealous of Wallen- 
stein, and urged the Emperor to remove him from his 
command. The Emperor long hesitated ; but as he felt he 
must not seriously offend the League, he at last, in 1630, 
yielded. Part of Wallenstein's army was broken up, and 
part placed under Tilly. The step was a fatal one, for 
just at this time, when the Protestant cause seemed ruined, 
it was about to be defended by a new and powerful friend. 
This was Gustaviis Adolphus^ King of Sweden. He was 
a Protestant, and wished to help those who shared his belief 
He had also private injuries to revenge. Besides these 
reasons for joining in the struggle, there is ground to believe 
that Gustavus, who was of an ambitious nature, wished to 
conquer territory in Germany, so that he might be able to 
offer himiself for election to the Imperial throne after the 
death of Ferdinand. In the summer of 1630, some months 
before the dismissal of Wallenstein, he landed in the island 
of ^/4^^;^ with an army of 15,000 men. Many Protestants 
hailed him as a possible deliverer ; but the princes as a rule 
received him coldly. They feared the Emperor ; and they 
suspected the designs of Gustavus himself He compelled 
the Duke oi Po?nerama to form an alliance with him ; but 
the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg held off. In 1631 
Magdeburg^ which resisted the Edict of Restitution and 
would gladly have joined Gustavus, was taken by -Tilly, 
and destroyed. The cruelty of the conquerors in sacking 
this city has probably never been surpassed. This alarmed 
the Elector of Saxony, and the policy of the Emperor 
soon made him a declared enemy. Tilly, by the Em- 
peror's commands, after the destruction of Magdeburg, 
entered Saxony for the purpose of putting an end to an 
alliance which some Protestant princes had formed at 
Leipzig earlier in the year. The Elector now at once joined 
Gustavus Adolphus ; and a battle was fought at BreiUn/eld. 



156 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. [chap. 

The Saxons fled ; but the Swedes fought with great bravery, 
and defeated Tilly, cutting off his best troops. 

13. Gustavus Adolphus at Munich. — The Protestants 
were now as hopeful as the Catholics had been. Gustavus 
allowed the Saxons to take possession of Bohemia, and 
himself marched southwards towards Bavaria. Everywhere 
the Protestants received him with enthusiasm. Tilly, who 
had brought together a second army, tried to keep him from 
crossing the Lech ; but the old general, who had won so 
many victories, was again defeated, and so severely wounded 
that he died a few days afterwards. Gustavus had held court 
in Frankfurt. Munich now opened its gates to him ; and 
he took possession of Maximilian's palace. The Duke 
himself fled to Regensburg. 

14. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. — The fruits of all the 
Emperor's effort and ambition seemed now about to be 
snatched from hun. There was only one way in which he 
could hope to save them. That was by an appeal to 
Wallenstein. The great general agreed to raise an army, 
but on condition that it should be placed wholly under his 
control. About 40^00 men immediately flocked to his 
standard. In 1632 he took Prague, and easily drove the 
Saxons from Bohemia. He then set out for Niirnberg, but 
Gustavus reached it before him, and took up a strong posi- 
tion. Wallenstein avoided a battle, and at last, after in 
vain trying to force the enemy's position, Gustavus went 
back to Bavariii. The Imperial general next marched 
tov/ards Saxony. Gustavus followed him, and on November 
16, 1632, the battle of Lut2e7i was fought. The Swedes 
gained the victory ; but it was dearly bought, for the King 
himself was slain. 

15. Murder of Wallenstein. — After the death of Gustavus 
Adolphus, Axel Oxenstieni, the Swedish Chancellor, under- 
took to carry on the war. Under hirn were the Swedish 



XIV.] PROGRESS OF THE JVAR. 157 

General Horn, and Ber7ia7'd, Duke of Weimar. Wallenste'n 
now lost a great deal of time, and laid himself open to many 
suspicions on, the part of the Emperor's supporters. At 
last, in 1634, he was removed a second time from his 
command, and murdered. The Emperor rewarded the 
murderers, and issued a document setting forth all the 
deeds and purposes of which Wallenstein was accused. 

16. Treaty of Axel Oxenstiern with Cardinal Richelieu. — 
The Imperial forces were now commanded by /^^r<^/;/.^;/<^, 
the Emperors son, and King of the Romans. A battle was 
fought at Nd?'dlinge7t in 1634, in which the Swedes were 
defeated, and General Horn was made prisoner. After this 
the Elector of Saxony made peace at Prague with the 
Emperor, and other princes did the like. The war would 
probably have ended altogether, for all parties were longing 
for peace ; but Cardinal Richelieu., who had long watched 
the struggle, and who thought this a good opportunity 
of humbling the house of Austria, had already concluded 
a treaty with Oxenstiern, by which France was to receive 
German territory in return for aid in carrying on the war. 
Duke Bernard, who thus entered the French service, 
collected a fine army in the Rhine country, while the 
Swedish General Baner fought in Saxony and Thuringia. 

17. Death of Ferdinand II. Progress of the War. — Fer- 
dinand II. died in 1637, and was succeeded by his son 
Ferdijiand III., who was compelled to continue the war, 
not to secure the ends for v^'hich it was begim, but to save 
as much as possible from the Swedes and the French. In 
1639 D'^l^e Bernard suddenly died, having several times 
defeated the Catholic army. General Baner was also 
successful against the Imperialists ; and after him l^or- 
ste7iso7i, and later on Wra7igel, led the Swedes to, manv 
brilliant victories. Generals Ttire7ine and Conde carried on 
the war on behalf of France. 



158 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. 

1 8. The Peace of Westphalia. — Negotiations for peace seri- 
ously began in 1643. If the matter had depended on Geimany 
alone, all difficulties would soon have been overcome ; but 
France and Sweden both claimed to be rewarded for their 
share in the struggle, and their demands were so great that 
conferences went on from year to year without anything 
being done. The negotiations with the Sv/edes were carried 
on at Osnabriick J those with the French at Muiister. At last, 
on October 24, 1648, peace was concluded. This peace is 
known as The Peace of Westphalia. The war which it 
ended was one of the most terrible that Europe has ever 
seen. Half, if not two-thirds, of the population of Germany 
had perished while it was going on. Every part of the 
country had been laid waste ; many cities were in ruins ; 
trade had almost died out. In 1630 the Hansa League w^as 
virtually broken up on the ground that the towns composing 
it could no longer pay the expenses which connexion with 
the League involved. In spite of all this, the Peace of West- 
phalia was liked by no party in Germany. The Lutherans and 
Calvinists received the same freedom of conscience as the 
Catholics ; all Church property v/hich the Protestants had 
possessed in 1624 was to remain in their hands ; and Pro- 
testants and Catholics were to be equally represented in the 
Imperial Chamber. These concessions so irritated the 
Catholics that Pope Initocent X. protested against the 
Peace of Westphalia through his legate, and afterwards issued 
a bull declaring it void. On the other hand, the Protestants 
lost Bohemia. Both there and in his hereditary Austrian 
dominions the Emperor refused to tolerate Protestantism. 
Vv^hile the religious parties of Germany had their own causes 
of complaint against the Peace of W^estphalia, it brought 
heavy losses on the country as a whole. France was con- 
firmed in her possession of the Lorraine bishopricks, Metzy 
Toz^l,a.nd Verdun,2ind received as much oiElsass as belonged 



XIV.] THE PEACE OE WESTPHALL4. 159 

to Austria. By these acquisitions, and by the destruction 
of various fortifications on the Upper Rhine, France secured 
to herself an open passage into Germany. In addition to 
the towns of Wismar and Stettin^ Sweden received Western 
Pomera7iia^ and the Sees of Bremen and Verden — territory 
which placed in her hands the most important points on the 
coasts of the Baltic and the North Sea. She was also 
promised the sum of five million thalers. In virtue of the 
territory ceded to Sweden, she became a m.ember of the 
German Diet ; but the lands which France received were 
wholly severed from Germany. Both France and Sweden 
obtained the right of interfering in the affairs of Germany 
whenever they thought, or affected to think, that the provi- 
sions of the treaties of Osnabriick and Miinster were endan- 
gered. Switzerla7id and the Uiiited Provinces were already 
practically independent of the Empire ; but their independ- 
ence was now expressly acknowledged. Within Germany 
itself some changes were effected. The Elector of Bavaria 
kept the Upper Palatinate ; but Charles Lewis ^ the son of 
Frederick V., was restored to the rest of his hereditary terri- 
tories, and an eighth electoral title was created for his family. 
The Elector of Brandenburg received East Pomerania, the 
archbishoprick of Magdeburg, and the bishopricks of 
Halberstadt, Mindcn, and Kaniin. Concessions were also 
made to Mecklenburg, Hessen-Cassel, and Brunswick- 
Liineburg. 

19. Condition of the Empire. — The Empire now ceased 
to exist, except in name, even in Germany. As we have 
seep, the tendency of the Reformation v.as to strengthen 
the independence of the princes, both Catholic and 
Protestant. By the peace of Westphaha the Emperor 
fully recognised that independence. They Vvcre even to 
have the right of concluding treaties of alliance with foreign 
States, if not directed against Emperor or Empire. The 



i6o THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. [chap. 

authority of the Auhc Council, which was entirely subect 
to the Emperor, was made merely nominal. The po\ver 
of passing and interpreting laws, of making war or peace, of 
raising troops — these, and other rights relating to the Em- 
pire or Confederation as a whole, were now to belong, not 
to the Emperor, but to the Diet. Even the Diet, however, 
was to have no great power. In 1654 it was made a per- 
manent body ; and it became more and more famous for 
its formality and trifling, and for the solemnity and pomp 
with which it managed to do nothing. Difficulties con- 
nected with religion were not henceforth to be decided by a 
vote of the Diet, but by negotiations between the States in 
which the difficulties arose. 

20. International Law. — There was one good result 
which sprang from the division of Germany into a vast 
number of petty independent States. It became necessary 
that there should be some code which should protect the 
weaker States from the stronger. Such a code was 
gradually formed, and it worked "so well that, although 
there was practically no central authority to keep down the 
unruly, the weakest prince felt himself safe even when 
his nearest neighbour was a powerful Elector or King. 
The system which thus regulated the intercourse of the 
States of Germany gradually became the foundation for a 
system of International Law. 

21. Literature and Science. — German literature and 
science were not altogether crushed by the horrors of the 
Thirty Years' War. John Kepler., one of the most 
illustrious of modern astronomers, and Otto von Guerike^ 
the inventor of the air-pump, both belong to this period. 
Jacob Boeh?n, a half-mystical thinker, wrote works which 
have exercised considerable influence on later German 
philosophy. Martin Opitz^ a writer who strove to main- 
tain the purity of the German language, was the founder of 



XIV.] SUPERSTITIONS, i6i 

what is called the First Sihsiaii School of Poets. To this 
School belonged the versatile Paid Fleimning. Paul 
Gerhardt takes his place among the best religious poets 
of Germany. 

22. Superstitions. — In spite of the Reformation, and of 
the schools that the Reformers had founded, the majority of 
the German people were still ignorant and superstitious. 
Even yet many eagerly sought for the philosopher's stone, 
and a belief in astrology was very general. Witchcraft was 
almost universally believed in, and nothing was more 
common than for women to be tortured and burned as 
witches. Good men occasionally protested against this 
barbarous custom ; but it continued even into the eighteenth 
century. It finally gave way only before the light of ad- 
vancing science. 



CHAPTER XV, 

WARS WITH FRANCE. 

Abolition of most provincial Diets; bad government of the princes ; 
decay of the free towns (i) — weak character of Leopold I. ; the 
Great Elector ; war with Lezvis XIV. ; the battle of Fehrbellin ; 
the peace of Nimwegen (2) — robbery of German territory by Lezvis 
XIV.; Strassburg seized {2>) — rebellion of Hungary ; the Turks 
make war on the E7nperor ; Vienna besieged; the crozvn of Hun- 
gary 7nade he7^edita7y (4) — new war with Fra7tce : brutality op 
the Fre7tch soldiers; coalition of European Powers against Finance; 
the Peace of Ryswick (5) — ninth Electo7^ate; George Lezvis, Duke 
of Brunswick a7id Liineburg, beco77ies Ki7ig of E7igla7td ; Au- 
gustus II. of Saxony elected Ki7tg of Pola77.d (6) — Frede7'icky 
Elector of Brandenburg^ crow7ted King of Prussia (7) — the war 
of the Spanish Succession ; the Electo7's of Bavaria ■a7zd Koln 
join F7'a7ice ; the battles oj Do7iauwerth a7id Ble7thei77i (8) — • 
Joseph I. ; victory oJ P7'i7ice Eugene at Tu7'i7i; battles of Ouden- 
a7'de and Malplaqiiet ; de77iands of the allies (9) — Charles VI.; 
tJie t7'eaties of Utrecht^ Pastatt, a7zd Bade7z (10) — the P7'ag77iatic 
Sanction; war with the Turks ; war with F7'a7tce ; Lo7'rai7ie 
givemtp to Sta7tislaus Leszczy7iski ; it afterwa7'ds falls ifito the 
ha7ids of the F7^e7tch (11). 

I. The States of Germany. — Germany was now broken 
up into a large number of States, almost independent 
of the nominal head of the Empire. The history of these 
States is for a long time very uninteresting. Most of the 
Diets were put an end to, and those which continued 



[CH. XV.] LEOPOLD L 163 

to exist were without real power. The princes were thus 
absolute rulers within their territories. Each had his own 
courts of justice, his own hired troops, his own coinage, 
customs, tolls, and taxes. Most of them were very bad 
rulers. They imitated the pomp and grandeur of the 
court of Lewis XIV. of France, and in order to keep up 
their extravagance laid heavy taxes on their subjects. Thus 
trade, instead of reviving after the harm done to it by the 
Thirty Years' War, withered more and more. The free 
cities, no longer strengthened by their combination in 
Leagues, prospered no better than the principalities. Many 
of them became petty oligarchies ; others lost their freedom 
altogether, and were made subject to neighbouring princes. 
2. Leopold L The Great Elector. — Nothing of great im- 
portance happened in the last years of Ferdinand III.'s 
reign. He died in 1657, and was succeeded by his son 
Leopold. Lewis XIV. tried hard to get himself elected ; 
but the temporal Electors refused to be bribed. Leopold was 
well-meaning, but very weak both in intellect and character. 
This was the more unfortunate for Germany, because during 
his whole reign he had in Lewis XIV. a crafty and am- 
bitious enemy, who lost no opportunity of enriching himself 
at the expense of the Empire. When Lewis invaded the 
Netherlands in 1667, he met with no resistance from any 
German State, and by the Peace of Aachen.^ in 1669, com- 
pelled Spain to give up part of the country. In 1672 he 
made war on the United Provinces. At this time the ablest 
prince in Germany vras Frederick William of Brandenbu7'g\ 
usually called the Great Elector. In 1657 he had con- 
cluded the Treaty of Welau^ by which Prussia was de- 
clared independent of Poland ; and in 1.666 he received, 
by the settlement of the dispute respecting the Jiilich-Cleve 
territory, the Duchy of Cleve., and the counties of Mark 
and Ravensberg. Fearing for the safety of these lands he 



1 64 WAJ^S WITH FRANCE, [chap. 

joined the United Provinces against Lewis. The Emperor 
and King Charles of Spain did the hke. The Austrian 
army was placed under Monteaiaili^ a famous general. 
Leopold's chief councillor, Prince Lohkowitz^ was bribed by 
the French, and he, acting with the spiritual Electors and 
the Bishop of Milnster (who openly sided with Lewis), 
hampered the army so much that in 1673 Frederick 
William made peace. After the dismissal of Prince 
Lobkowitz, Montecuculi acted with more freedom, and 
gained some advantages on the Lower Rhine ; but on 
the Upper Rhine the Austrians were defeated by the 
F>ench general Ttirenne. In 1674 Frederick William 
again joined the allies against France. Denmark took the 
same side ; but Sweden made a treaty with Lewis, and 
invaded Brandenburg. Various German princes also dis- 
graced themselves by siding with the French. Frederick 
William had to return from the Rhine and defend his own 
country against the Swedes, and in 1675 defeated them in a 
great battle at Fehrbellin. After this he conquered the 
greater part of Pomerania. Meanwhile the war on the 
Rhine went on. By the death of Turenne the French lost 
ground for a time ; but, on the whole, the allies were not 
successful. In 1678 the United Provinces and Spain made 
peace with France at Nimwege7i^ and next year the Em- 
peror also did so. He had to give up Freiburg in Breisgau 
to the French ; and Frederick William was obliged to 
restore to the Swedes nearly all his conquests in Pomerania. 
The Great Elector, however, was a firm and wise ruler, and 
under him his subjects prospered so much that he may be 
looked on as the chief founder of the greatness of the House 
of Hohenzollern. He died in 1688. 

3. Strassburg seized by Lewis XIV. — During the yeais 
that followed the Peace of Nimwegen, Lewis would not 
leave Germany alone. Pretending that the treaties by 



XV.] AUSTRIA, HUNGARY, AND THE TURKS. 165 

which France had received the Austrian lands in Elsass 
and other territories had given up not only these possessions 
but all places that had ever been united to them, he seized 
many towns, villages, and lands on both sides of the Rhine. 
To give an appearance of fairness to his proceedings, he 
established " Chambers of Reunion" to decide what places 
lawfully belonged to him. A great outcry was raised in 
Germany against these robberies. Lewis consented to 
have the whole matter laid before a congress in Frankfurt ; 
but nothing came of its discussions. Of all German towns, 
he was most anxious to possess Strassburg^ the key to the 
whole of South Germany, In 1681, when many of the 
people were at the Frankfurt fair, he suddenly took pos- 
session of it, having before gained the support of a party 
within the city by means of bribes. All Germany deplored 
the loss of this strong and beautiful tow^n. It remained in 
the hands of France till our own day. 

4. Austria, Hungary, and the Turks. — The Emperor 
might at last have been roused to put a stop to the robberies 
of Lewis ; but at this time the affairs of Hungary demanded 
all his energies. He had treated the Hungarian Protestants 
with so much harshness that at length, in 1678, they had re- 
belled. Lewis, although he persecuted Protestants in his 
own country, helped those of Hungary against their King. 
Their chief allies, however, were the Turks, w^ho were also 
incited by Lewis to make war on the Emperor. In 1683 a 
great Turkish army marched through Hungary, and made 
for Vienna. The Emperor and many of the people fled ; 
but the city prepared to defend itself, and for several 
months, under Count Riidiger of Stahrenbcrg, it baffled 
every effort of the besiegers. It was nearly overcome when 
at last Duke Charles oi Lorraine^ and John Sobieski^^ King 
of Poland^ came to its aid. The Turks suddenly took 
fright, and fled without offering battle. The war did not 



166 WARS WITH FRANCE, [chap. 

come to an end ; but the Turks were several times defeated, 
and in 1699 they made peace at Carlowitz, In 1687 the 
crown of Hungary, which had before been nominally 
elective, was made hereditary. 

5. New war with France. — In 1688 Lewis made war 
again on the Emperor, nominally because one whom he 
wished to be made Elector of Koln was not accepted. This 
time the Diet declared war against Lewis. The French 
army entered the Palatinate, and by the King's orders was 
guilty of great outrages. The country was overrun by wild 
troops, and the people begged in vain for mercy. Their 
homes were set on fire, and they themselves were either 
murdered or driven almost naked into France. Heidelberg^ 
with its beautiful castle, and many flourishing towns on the 
Rhine, were destroyed. At Speyer the soldiers opened the 
graves of the Emperors, stole the silver coffins, and scattered 
the bones on the ground. These acts roused throughout 
Germany so much hatred and anger that their effects can 
hardly be said to have died away even in our own day. 
The Emperor bestirred himself, and he was powerfully sup- 
ported by Frederick oi Brandeiibtirg^ the Great- Elector's 
son, and other princes. A coalition of European Powers, in 
which Engla7id^ under Williai7i of Orange^ took the leading 
place, was formed. The great struggle which followed 
belongs more to general European history than to that of 
Germany. For seven years it was carried on by sea and 
land with varying fortune. At length, in 1697, peace was 
concluded at Ryswick between France, England, Spain, 
and Holland. The Emperor soon followed the example 
of his allies. France kept Sirassbiirg^ but she had 
to give up Freiburg^ Breisach^ Philipsbicrg^ and also 
places that had been annexed on the ground of having 
formerly belonged to Elsass. A promise was obtained that 
the Catholic religion, which had been established in these 



XV.] THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 167 

places by France, should be maintained in them under the 
Empire. 

6. Two German princes ascend foreign thrones. — Dur- 
ing the progress of this war, the Emperor had created a 
ninth electorate in idcvowr oi Ernst August^ Duke oi Bruits - 
wick'Liineburg or Hanover. The College of Princes, 
jealous of this elevation of one of their number, refused to 
recognize the new title ; but George Eewts, who succeeded 
his father in 1678, was universally acknowledged as Elector 
in 1705. In 1 7 14 he ascended the English throne, as 
George I. Another German prince who ascended a foreign 
throne about this time w^as Augustus II, called '' The 
Strong," Elector of Saxony. In 1697, more than a year 
after the death of Sobieski, he was chosen King of Poland. 
He became a Catholic. All his successors in Saxony have 
been Catholics ; but the body of the Saxon people were 
and still are Protestants. 

7. The Elector of Brandenburg becomes King of Prussia. 
— The Electors of Hanover and Saxony were not the only 
German princes who became Kings. The Great Elector 
was succeeded by his son Frederick. Frederick was a 
very vain man, fond of pomp and show. He could not 
become King of Brandenburg, because as Elector of that 
country he nominally owed allegiance to the Emperor ; 
but as Duke of Prussia he was independent, and there 
was nothing to hinder his becoming Prussian King if 
he could obtain from the Emperor a promise to recognize 
the new title. In ordinary circumstances the Emperor 
would probably have hesitated to sanction so great an 
advance on the part of one who w^as, at least in name, a 
subject ; but he knew that he would soon be involved in 
another war, and he was anxious to secure as much support 
as possible. On condition, therefore, that Frederick should 
aid him in the approaching contest, he at last consented 



i68 WARS WITH FRANCE, [char 

that the Prussian Duchy should be changed into a kingdom. 
On January i8, 1701, and in circumstances of great splen- 
dour, Frederick was crowned King at Kbnigsberg. Few 
thought this an event of much importance, but it was 
followed by very grave consequences both for Germany and 
Europe. 

8. The War of the Spanish Succession. — The stnjggle 
which had for some time been foreseen was the famous 
War of the Spanish Successioii, Charles II. of Spain had 
named the son of the Bavarian Elector as his successor ; 
but the young prince died before Charles him.self. Charles 
died on November iiy 1700. Shortly before his death he 
was induced, almost against his own will, to declare as his 
heir Philip of Anjott^ the grandson of Lewis XIV., whose 
first wife, Maria Theresa^ was a sister of Charles. The 
Emperor would not submit to this arrangement. His 
wife, Margaret Theresa^ was also a sister of Charles ; and 
she had not, like Maria Theresa, renounced her rights. 
He therefore claimed the Spanish crown for his son, the 
Archduke Charles. The Protestant Powers sided with the 
Emperor, for they thought that if the thrones cf France and 
Spain were held by members of one family the freedom of 
the whole of Europe might be endangered. The Emperor 
had at this time a general of high military genius. This 
was Francis Eugeiie^ Prince of Savoy., who had already 
been made field-marshal for distinguished services. In the 
spring of 1701, Eugene crossed the Alps with an Austrian 
army, aided by Prussian and Hanoverian troops, in order 
to drive the P^ench out of Italy. A few months afterwards 
Austria was joined by England and Holland ; and on 
October 2, 1702, the States of the Empire formally declared 
war against France. Maximilian Enimaiuiel., the Elector of 
Bavaria, and his brother, the Elector of Koln, joined France. 
In 1703 the French crossed the Rhine and joined the 



XV.] THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 169 

Bavarian troops. Instead of marching with the French 
into Austria, the Elector undertook an expedition into 
Tyrol. He at first had some success ; but the Tyrolese 
soon recovered themselves, and drove out the Bavarians, 
after having slain large numbers. In 1704 Lord Marl- 
borough., who had already become famous from his doings 
in the Netherlands, and Prince Eugene united their forces 
at Heilbronn. A battle was fought near Donajciverlh on 
July 2, in which the Elector and Marshal Alarsm were 
defeated. They were soon joined by Marshal Tallardj and 
on August 1 3, a still greater battle took place. The French 
and Bavarians took up their position near Hochstddt., 
Tallard, with the right wing of the French, occupying 
Blenhei7n, from which the battle has received its name. 
Both sides fought bravely ; but at length the English and 
Imperial troops succeeded in driving back the enemy at 
all points. No fewer than 20,000 French and Bavarians 
were killed or drowned, whilst more than half as many 
more surrendered as prisoners. Amongst the prisoners was 
Marshal Tallard himself The result of this battle was 
that the seat of war was removed in great part from Ger- 
many. The defeated allies rapidly crossed the Rhine, the 
Bavarian Elector taking refuge in the Netherlands, whilst 
the Imperialists seized Bavaria and the neighbouring 
countries. Marlborough was made a prince of the Empire; 
and he became as well known and popular in Germany a/ 
in England. 

9. Joseph I. — In 1705 the Emperor Leopold died. He 
was succeeded by his son, Joseph I. The new Emperor 
was in every way a much stronger man than his father, and, 
unlike him, put full confidence in Prince Eugene. He 
continued the war with France, and had also to put down 
civil wars in Hungary. The Austrians had treated the 
Bavarians with so much harshness that the peasantry had 



I70 PFAJ^S WITH\FRANCE. [chap. 

at length revolted. After ah obstinate contest this insur- 
rection was quelled, and the Elector and his brother were 
put to the ban of the Empire. Prince Eugene met with 
serious reverses in Italy; but, on September 7, 1706, he 
more than made up for them by a great victory over the 
French at Turin. This success was largely due to the 
Prussians, who, under Prince Leopold of Dessau^ formed the 
left wing of Eugene's army. Prince Eugene and Marl- 
borough once more united their armies in the Netherlands, 
and gained in 1708 and 1709 the brilliant victories of 
Oudenarde and Malplaquet, In the interval between these 
battles, peace would probably have been made but for the 
demand of the allies that, in addition to other concessions, 
Lewis XIV. should aid them by force of arms4ii driving his 
grandson, Philip V., from the throne of Spain. 

10. Charles VI. Treaties of Utrecht, Rastatt, and Baden. 
— Joseph I. died on April 17, 171 1. As he had no children, 
his brother, the Archduke Charles., was elected his suc- 
cessor. The allies were as unwilling that the Spanish 
crown should belong to the chief of the house of Austria as 
that it should belong to the Bourbons. For this,, and other 
reasons arising out of the home politics of England, Marl- 
borough was recalled, and on April 11, 1713, the Peace of 
Utrecht was signed. Charles VI. complained that he was 
betrayed by his allies, and continued the war ; but the Im- 
perial troops were so unsuccessful in the following campaign 
that Austria at length consented to come to terms, and, on 
March 7, 17 14, the Peace of Rastatt was concluded 
Austria gave up her claims to Spain in favour of Philip V, 
but received the Spanish N ether laiids., Naples., Milan^ and 
Sardinia. In a separate treaty which was concluded 
between France and the Empire at Baden in Aaran on 
September 7, 17 14, the Empire had to cede to France the 
Imperial fortress of Landau. The Electors of Bavaria and 



XV.] THE LAST YEARS OF CHARLES VL 171 

Koln were pardoned, and restored to all their titles and 
possessions. 

II. The last years of Charles VI. — Charles had no son. 
In 17 1 3, therefore^ he drew up, in favour of his daughter, 
Maria Theresa^ a Pragmatic Sanction, a law providing 
that the Austrian dominions, in case the male line should 
die out, should be heritable by the female line. After many 
efforts he at last induced the leading European Powers 
and the Empire to guarantee this arrangement. In a 
war with the Turks, carried on between 171 5 and 17 18, 
Prince Eugene again distinguished himself. By the 
Peace of Passarowitz^ Austria received Belgrade and other 
towns and lands. A new war with France broke out in 
1733, on account of the claim of Augustus LIL, Elector of 
Saxony, to the throne of Poland. France supported Stanis- 
laus Leszczynski, Lewis XV.^s father-in-law, whom a con- 
siderable party in Poland had chosen as their King. The 
Emperor, anxious to gain the support of the Saxon Elector 
to the Pragmatic Sanction, took his side. The result of 
this war was that, besides exchanging Naples and Sicily for 
Tuscany and Parma^ the Emperor had to give up the 
beautiful province of Lorraine to Leszczynski, through whom 
it came in the end into the hands of the French. Charles 
died on October 21, 1740. He was the last Emperor, in 
the male line, of the house of Habsburg. 



CHAPTER XVL 

FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

The Austrian tei'ritories claimed by Charles Albert, Elector of 
Bavaria ; claims of Augustus III. of Saxony ; action of 
Frederick II, of Frtissia (i) — Frede?'ick /, ICing of Prussia (2) 
- — Frederick William L of Prussia ; his character ; his attejttion 
to the army ; territory won by him {3) — youth of Frederick 11 
of Prussia (4) — the first Silesian war; battle of Molwitz {^)— 
alliance fo7'med against Maria Theresa; the Elector of Bavaria 
crowned E7nperor; Maria Thei^esa supported by the Hungarians ; 
battle of Czaslau : peace with Frederick II. (6) — successes of 
Maria Theresa; death of Charles VII,; the second Silesian 
war ; victories of Frederick II. ; Peace of Dresden (7) — Francis, 
Grand Duke of Tuscany, elected E7npe7'or ; Peace of Aachen (8) 
~—ho7ne gove7'7tme7tt of F7'ederick II. (9) — hostility of the Euro- 
pea7i powers to F7^ederick II. ; allia7ice betwee7t Prussia a7id 
England, and betiveen Austida and France (lo) — begi7i7ii7ig of 
the Seven Years' War ; F7^ederick II. i7ivades Saxo7iy ; battle of 
low sit z {11)— victory of the P7'ussia7is near P7'ague {12) — the 
battle of Koli7t ; g7'eater pa7't of Silesia seized by the Aust7'ia7is ; 
the Co7ivention of Closterseveit (13) — battles of Rossbach a7id 
Ieuthe7i (14) — battles of Ci'efeld, Zo7'ndo7f, and Hochki7'che7t 
(15) — battles of Minden and Ktmersdoif (16) — battles of lieg- 
nitz and To7gau (17) — 7noveme)tts of P7'i7ice He7iry a7id Fre- 
de7'ick in jj6i (18) — allia^ice of Frede7'ick II. with Peter III. of 
Russia ; victo7y over the Aust7'iajts ; zvithdi-azval of the Rus- 
sia7is; siege of Schweidnitz; adva7itages gai7ied by Frederick II. (19) 
— Peace of Hubertusburg ; results of the Seven Years'' War (20) 



[CH. XVI.] FREDERICK L OF PRUSSIA, 173 

— Joseph II, ; goz'ernme7it of Frederick II. (21) — First Partition 
of Poland {22) — the ^^ Potato War^'' (23) — death of Maria Theresa; 
vigorous govern77ient of Joseph II. ; league formed by Frederick 
II. (24) — death of Frederick II. ; Frederick William II. (25) — 
Joseph 11,^ s schemes; his death (26) — leopold II. (27). 

1. The claims of Maria Theresa to the Austrian inheri- 
tance disputed. — On the death of her father, Maria Theresa, 
Queen of Hungary, took possession of the Austrian terri- 
tories. But, in spite of the solemn promises which Charles 
VI. had received in favour of his daughter, she found that 
she would have to defend her rights. Charles Albert, the 
Elector of Bavaria, a descendant of the eldest daughter of 
the Emperor Ferdinand I., claimed that he had a better 
title to the Austrian dominions than Maria Theresa. 
Augustus III., Elector of Saxony, and King of Poland, also 
put forth claims to the Austrian inheritance. Before these 
princes had taken any practical steps in support of their 
demands, a more dangerous rival had taken up arms and 
actually conquered one of the fairest provinces of the young 
princess. This was Frederick II, who had recently suc- 
ceeded to the throne of Prussia. 

2. Frederick I., King of Prussia. — Frederick I. of Prussia 
died in 1713. In imitation of Lewis XIV., he had lived in 
a style of great splendour, and, by his reckless extravagance, 
did much to keep his people poor. Nevertheless, he did 
a great deal for Prussia. By raising it into a kingdom, he 
secured that his successors should always have an induce- 
ment to strengthen and extend their inheritance. It is thus 
to him that much of the greatness to which Prussia after- 
wards rose may be indirectly traced. Among the benefits 
directly conferred by him on Prussia were the University of 
Halle, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and various other 
institutions intended to promote the higher culture. 



174 FREDERICK THE GREA T, [chap. 

3. Frederick William I. of Prussia — Frederick William L 
was in almost all respects the opposite of his father, fie 
was a man of coarse and violent nature, given to fierce 
outbursts of anger. Even those who had the strongest 
claims on his tenderness he treated with great harshness, if 
they in any way thwarted his plans. He had a contempt 
for learning and learned men, and was fond of brutal 
practical jokes. One of the good points of his character 
was his rigid economy, and even this he carried too far. 
No King ever lived in plainer style. After his father's 
death he dismissed a host of Court servants, whom he 
looked on as mere encumbrances. His evenings were spent 
in what he called his tobacco-college. His ministers and 
generals met him in a plainly-furnished room, where, amidst 
clouds of tobacco smoke, important affairs of state were 
discussed. Although arbitrary and tyrannical, he did 
much to add to the power of Prussia. The result of his 
efforts was that, at the time of his death, the Prussian army 
consisted of 80,000 men, fully equipped and thoroughly 
organized. He took especial delight, in the " Potsdam 
Guard," which was made up of very tall men, brought 
together, at great expense, from all parts of Europe. His 
agents even kidnapped giants for his service from foreign 
countries. He died on May 31, 1740. In 1720 he had 
acquired from Sweden the city of Stettin^ the southern part 
of Hither-Poinerania^ and the islands of Usedom and 
Wollin. 

4. Frederick II. of Prussia. — Frederick William was 
succeeded by his son Frederick II., usually called Frederick 
the Great. Frederick was twenty-eight years old when he 
became King. He had great natural abilities, and had 
acquired considerable culture. His youth had not been 
a happy one. His tastes were so different from those of 
his narrow-minded father that the latter had treated 



XVI. THE FIRST SILESIAN WAR, 175 

him with great ci-uelty. In 1730 he had formed the 
plan of running away and taking refuge with his aunt, the 
Queen of England. When this scheme was found out, 
he was condemned to death by a court martial ; and it was 
with great difficulty that the King was prevented from 
carrying the sentence into execution. A youth named 
Katte^ who had been in Frederick's secret, was beheaded 
in sight of the young prince for his share in the plot. The 
^rying experiences of Frederick's youth had an unhappy 
influence on his character. They checked the growth of 
kindly feelings, and helped to make him in later life bitter 
and moody. 

5. The First Silesian War. — Frederick had no sooner 
been crowned than he entered in earnest upon his kingly 
duties. From the beginning his government v/as thoroughly 
despotic. He consulted no one as to the measures he 
ought to adopt ; and even matters of small importance had 
to be laid before him. The duty of his ministers was 
simply to record his decisions, and to see that they were 
carried out. When Charles VI. died, he ought to have 
supported Maria Theresa ; but he had long wished to see 
the little kingdom of Prussia extended, and the present 
seemed a favourable opportunity. Some old renounced 
claims on various Silesian lands served as a pretext for war. 
He sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering to help the 
young Queen if she would give up the desired territory. She 
indignantly refused ; but Frederick was already in Silesia 
at the head of his troops, and he had no difficulty in driving 
out the Austrians, who were unprepared for such an attack. 
In the following spring an Austrian army, under Marshal 
Neipperg^ marched against Frederick ; and a battle was 
fought at Molwitz. The King showed none of that 
presence of mind which he afterwards displayed so 
often ; but his army fought bravely, and, under the skilfuJ 



176 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. 

leadership of Marshal Schwerm^ gained a complete 
victory, 

6. Charles VII. Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — 
The position of Maria Theresa now appeared desperate. 
Soon after the battle of Molwitz, an alliance was formed 
against her by France, Prussia, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony. 
A French army entered Germany and joined that of 
Bavaria, whilst the Saxons marched into Bohemia. Vienna 
might have been taken ; but the Bavarian Elector, who had 
already been proclaimed at Linz hereditary Duke of 
Austria, was jealous of the progress of the Saxons in 
Bohemia, and suddenly turned aside in order to conquer 
that country. On November 29 he took possession of 
Prague, and was at once declared King of Bohemia. Early 
in 1742 he was elected Emperor at Frankfurt, and crowned 
as Charles VII. But the fortunes of Maria Theresa had 
already begun to brighten. As the heiress of Charles VI., 
she was Queen of Hungary. She appealed to the loyalty of 
the Hungarians, appearing in the Diet with her infant son, 
afterwards Joseph 11.^ in her arms. The Hungarians were 
touched by her trust in them, and enthusiastically promised 
to aid her. An army was forthwith raised, which not only 
reconquered Austria proper, but invaded Bavaria, and, on 
the very day on which Charles VII. was crowned, seized 
Munich. The Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, 
were defeated by Frederick at Czaslauj but the result of 
this disaster was that the Queen was freed for the time from 
her most dangerous enemy, for it induced her to conclude 
peace with him soon after the battle. Frederick received 
Upper and the greater part of Lower Silesia. 

7. Successes of Austria. The Second Silesian War. — As 
Saxony followed the example of Prussia, the Austrians had 
now only the French and Bavarians to contend with. The 
former w^xq in Prague ; but, when besieged by Prince 



XVL] YEARS OF PEACE, 177 

Charles, they made their escape and left Bohemia alto- 
gether. Charles VII. made himself master of Bavaria again 
for a time ; but early in 1743 he had once more to take 
refuge in Frankfurt. In the same year the cause of Maria 
Theresa was greatly strengthened by the victory of George 
11. of England at Dettiiigen over the French. Frederick 
II. was alarmed by the successes of Austria, for he feared 
that Maria Theresa would take the first opportunity to 
gain back Silesia. In 1744, therefore, he began what is 
called the Seco7id Silesian War — nominally in support of 
Charles VII. The latter died early in 1745 ; but the war 
continued. The Prussians gained three great victories one 
after the other — those of Hohenfriedberg^ Sorr, and Kessels- 
dorf. Immediately after the last of these battles, peace was 
made at Dresden^ Frederick being allowed to keep his 
Silesian conquests. 

8. Francis I. War with France continued. — Meanwhile, 
Maximilian Joseph.^ the son of Charles VII., had received 
back his hereditary territory on condition of giving up for 
ever his pretensions to Austria. On September 13, 1745, 
Maria Theresa's husband, Francis^ Grand Duke of Titscany^ 
was elected Emperor. After the Peace of Dresden he was 
acknowledged by Frederick II. The war with France was 
continued by Austria, along with England, for some years. 
The French, under Marshal Saxe, an illegitimate son of 
Augustus II., King of Poland, were led in the Netherlands 
f "om victory to victory. In 1748 the Peace of Aachen was 
concluded. Austria had to yield Parma and Piacenza; 
but her German territory remained intact. 

9. Years of peace. — The following eight years were years 
of peace. Both Maria Theresa and Frederick made good 
use of them for the benefit of their subjects. During -the 
greater part of the year Frederick lived in the palace of 
Sans Soiici^ which he built for himself at Potsdam. He 

M 



1 78 FREDERICK THE GRLAT, [chap. 

devoted several hours each day to public business ; but he 
also found time for social intercourse, for study, and for 
music, of which he was passionately fond. Once a year he 
made a tour of his dominions, in order to review his troops, 
and to make himself acquainted with the state of the 
kingdom. He made great efforts to improve the admini- 
stration of justice, simplifying it and bringing it more within 
the reach of all classes. Various industries were en- 
couraged ; and Berlin was beautified with new buildings, 
and enriched by works of art brought at considerable cost. 
from other countries. Frederick generally spoke and wrote 
French ; and he kept up a friendly correspondence with the 
leading literary and scientific men of France. He himself 
wrote numerous works, both in prose and verse, in French. 
In 1750 he induced Voltaire to come and stay at his court. 
The great writer was at first treated with every mark of 
respect ; but misunderstandings arose, and in the end he 
was obliged to quit Prussia. 

10. Preparations for war. Alliances. — Although Europe 
was at peace, no one expected that war could be very long 
delayed. Even when several years had passed, Maria 
Theresa could not reconcile herself to the loss of Silesia, 
which, now that it had come into other hands, seemed to 
acquire a new value. The fact that the province was 
flourishing under the judicious government of Frederick by 
no means lessened her regret. She was far from being 
Frederick's only enemy. Most of the European Powers 
saw with jealousy the rapid advance of the new State under 
its young sovereign. Frederick was aware of this, and per- 
ceived that he had before him a struggle greater than any in 
which he had yet been involved — a struggle not only for his 
new territory, but probably even for his crown. He silently 
prepared to maintain his rights against all enemies. Dis- 
trusting France, and knowing the value of an alliance with 



XVi.J THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 179 

England, he sought the friendship of the latter countr\\ 
England had hitherto fought on the side of Austria ; but 
Prussia was in every respect a more natural ally. A treaty 
was, therefore, concluded between the two countries in 
January, 1756. Austria, which had so often stood opposed 
to France, felt that she had now a common cause with her 
ancient enemy, and made proposals for an alliance. The 
great rivals soon came to an understanding ; and they were 
afterwards joined by Saxony and Russia, The ruin of 
Frederick was the end which all these allies set before 
themselves. 

II. Beg-inning of the Seven Years* War. — Frederick was 
secretly informed of the alliances that were being con- 
cluded against him. It was now that he displayed his real 
greatness. Far from being overwhelmed by the dangers 
which beset him, he was roused to new activity. Knowing 
that delay might prove fatal, he resolved to strike the first 
blow, and to strike it vigorously. It was of great importance 
to him that Saxojiy should not be in the power of the 
enemy. When, therefore, he found that he could not gain 
the friendship of that countr}^, he suddenly appeared at its 
frontiers, in August, 1756, with an army of 60,000 men. 
The Saxon army, which was 17,000 strong, hastily retreated, 
and took up a strong position in the valley of the Elbe, be- 
tween Pima and K'67iigstein. They were instantly shut in 
by the Prussians ; but Frederick had soon to detach a body 
of troops in order to meet the Austrians, who were ad- 
vancing to the relief of the distressed army. On October i, 
a battle was fought at Lowositz^ in which, after doing great 
damage to the Prussians, the Austrians were defeated. 
Notwithstanding this disappointment, the Saxons made a 
brave attempt to break through the Prussian lines.; but 
they were driven back, and compelled to yield themselves 
prisoners of war. The men had to join the Prussian army ; 



i8o FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. 

but their hearts were not in the service of Frederick, and 
many of them deserted. 

12. Victory of the Prussians near Prague. — Next year the 
prospects of Frederick seemed dark indeed. Swedeii had 
added herself to the hst of his enemies. Of the German 
princes only the Landgrave of Hessen and the Dukes of 
Brunswick and Gotha sided with him ; the others had 
already joined Austria. But Frederick did not despair. 
He had confidence in himself, and hoped to make up for 
the smaller number of his troops by their superiority in 
discipline and bravery. To allow his enemies time to unite 
their forces would have been fatal ; he accordingly deter- 
mined to attack them singly, one after the other. Leaving 
a small force in Prussia for its defence against the Russians 
and Swedes, he hastened into Bohemia, and, on May 6, 
1757, near Prague, attacked the Austrian army, which had 
never imagined that he was so near. The Austrians were 
commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine. The Prussians 
were exposed to a heavy fire, and at one moment it seemed 
as if they were about to give way. The a^ed Field- Marshal 
Sch'weri7i^ snatching a standard from the hands of a retreat- 
ing officer, and calling on all who were not cowards to follow 
him, rushed forwards. He almost instantly fell; but his 
heroism gave his men fresh courage, and they renewed their 
attacks with so much vigour at various points that the 
Austrians had to fly. Some made for Kilttenberg^ where an 
army was stationed under Marshal Daicnj but the greater 
number took refuge in Prague. 

13. Misfortunes of Frederick. — Frederick remained some 
time before Prague ; but on June 18, he attacked Daun 
near Kolin. Here he met with his first serious reverse. 
At an unfortunate moment he altered the original plan of 
battle. The result was that what had promised to be a 
glorious victory was changed into a disastrous defeat. 



XVI.] BATTLES OF ROSSBACH AND LEUTHEN, i8i 

The Austrians, taking advantage of their unexpected 
victoryj advanced into Silesia, and seized greater part of 
the province. The Russians defeated the army which had 
been left in defence of Prussia, and the Swedes threatened 
the countiy from the north. As if these misfortunes were 
not enough, Frederick's cause was further injured by the 
base Convention of Closterseven, by which the Duke of 
Cui7iberla7id agreed to disband his army and to yield to the 
French Hajiover, Hessen, and the Duchy of Brujiswick. 

14. Battles of Rossbach and Leuthen. — A weaker man 
would have been utterly overwhelmed by such trials ; but 
they only called into full play Frederick's great powers. 
The French had united with the Austrian troops ; and as, 
since the convention of Closterseven, there was no enemy 
to check their progress, they were advancing to take posses- 
sion of Saxony. Frederick determined, if possible, to drive 
them back. Marching rapidly towards the Saal^ he came 
up with the allied armies on November 5, near the village 
of Rossbach. His troops were greatly outnumbered by 
those of the enemy, who looked forward to an easy victor}'. 
The French even hoped they might have the pleasure of 
sending Frederick as a prisoner to Paris. As they joyfully 
advanced, the Prussians, who occupied a height, appeared 
to pay no attention to their movements. The King himself 
quietly sat at table with his generals. When, however, the 
French were near enough, a terrible fire Avas opened by the 
Prussians ; and the cavalry, under the brave General 
Seidlitz^ swept down upon the enemy. The French had 
not looked for such rapid movement. They scarcely even 
offered battle, but turned and fled. This victory secured 
Saxony, and raised the spirits of the Prussian army ; but 
Frederick did not feel that he had yet done enough. It 
was necessary that Silesia should now be delivered. 
Exactly a month after the battle of Rossbach, the battle of 



1 82 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. 

Leiitheii was fought. The Prussians numbered 30,000, the 
Austrians 80,000. Nevertheless, the latter were utterly 
defeated, and driven out of Silesia. Frederick had thus 
in a short time swept back the tide of invasion which had 
threatened to overwhelm his country. Having no wish to 
continue the war a day longer than was necessary, he made 
proposals of peace to Austria ; but the Empress rejected 
his offers, and began to prepare for a new campaign. The 
supreme command was taken from Prince Charles of 
Lorraine, and given to Daun, who, although the victor of 
Kolin, was not a general of high ability. 

15, The Battles of Crefeld, Zorndorf, and Hochkirchen. — 
The campaign of 1758 was opened by Fei^dinajid^ Duke of 
Brunswick, Vv^ho, with an army maintained by England, 
attacked the French, and gradually drove them out of the 
country to the east of the Rhine. In a battle fought at 
Crefeld^ the Duke, with greatly inferior numbers, gained a 
decided victory. Frederick himself attempted, by a bold 
stroke, to seize Olmiitz ; but he was unsuccessful. The 
Russians had entered Prussia, and were treating the people 
very cruelly. Frederick, leaving Marshal Keith to defend 
Silesia, came up with the Russians near Zorndorf on 
August 28. A fearful battle was fought, in which neither 
side gave quarter. From morning till night the slaughter 
lasted ; but in the en'd the Prussians were victorious, and 
the Russians retreated into Poland. The King hastened 
to the help of his brother Heii^y against the Austrians in 
Saxony. Daun took up a strong position, whilst Frederick 
incautiously encamped on an open plain near the village of 
Hochkirchen. His generals expostulated with him ; but he 
would hardly listen to their complaints. The Austrians 
did not fail to take advantage of the mistake. Early in the 
morning of October 14, whilst it was still dark, they 
attacked the advanced posts, and, seizing a battery which 



XVI.] THE BATTLE OF MINDEN. 183 

commanded the chief street of Hochkirchen, turned the 
cannon against the Prussians. The latter made brave efforts 
to defend themselves ; but, knowing nothing of the position 
of the enemy, they were thrown into helpless confusion, 
and thousands, with some of Frederick's best generals, 
were cut down. After sunrise there was a dense mist. 
When at length this cleared away, Frederick saw that 
nothing remained but to retreat. His army did so in such 
excellent order that the Austrians obtained no further 
advantage. Although defeated, Frederick continued his 
march towards Silesia, and his operations there were so 
successful that at the end of the year the Austrians had 
to leave the province in his hands, and to take up their 
winter quarters in Bohemia. 

16. The Battle of Minden. The defeat of Kunersdorf.— 
The year 1759 "^^^^ ^^ eventful one for the Prussians. 
Frederick's enemies were more than ever resolved to crush 
him. The Russians advanced in great numbers, under 
General Soltikow, towards the Oder, whilst the Austrian 
army, commanded by Daun and Loudon, was strongly 
reinforced. The French tried to win back the territory 
from which Prince Ferdinand had driven them ; and for a 
time they seemed to be almost certain of success. The two 
bodies into which their army was divided crossed the Rhine 
at different points, and, uniting near Giessen, seized Cassel 
and other towns. Ferdinand retreated as far as Bre?ne7i, 
but he at length resolved to offer battle, and, on August i, 
came up with the French near Minden. The French 
cavalry, which was placed in the centre, was attacked by 
the English and Hanoverian infantry, and routed. A 
crushing defeat would have been the result, but Lord 
George Sackville, whom Prince Ferdinand ordered to 
pursue the French, either from cowardice or jealousy 
refused to obey, and the enemy thus managed to retreat 



i84 FREDERICK THE GREA T. [chap. 

in good order. But Ferdinand's victory was complete 
enough to enable him to regain the whole of the ground he 
had lost. King Frederick was by no means so successful. 
This was for him the most unfortunate campaign of the 
Seven Years' War. For some time his gi'eat object was to 
prevent the union of the Russians with the division of the 
Austrian army under Loudon. When the former succeeded 
in crossing the Oder, he sent General Wedel to oppose 
their further progress. On June 23, Wedel attacked the 
enemy at Kay^ and was defeated. As the Russians and 
Austrians now united their forces, Frederick resolved to 
proceed against them himself, and to attack them with his 
whole strength. He seems to have regarded this as a 
supreme effort, on which everything depended ; for he made 
provision for the government of his kingdom in case he 
should either be killed or taken prisoner, and charged his 
brother Henry on no account to conclude a peace disgrace- 
ful to Prussia. The great battle was fought on August 1 2, 
near Kunersdorf. After a long and fierce contest, the left 
wing of the Russians was put to flight Frederick's troops 
were already worn out by long marches', and his generals 
entreated him not to ask them to do more that day. But he 
hoped to succeed, and ordered the battle to go on. The 
Russian right wing and the Austrians v/ere still fresh, and 
the Prussians in vain tried to break their ranks. The 
attempt was again and again made, but always with the 
same result. At length the Prussians themselves gave way. 
Their numbers had been fearfully reduced, and, instead of 
retreating in their usual good order, they fled in wild 
confusion. Not fewer than 17,000 Prussians fell in this 
battle. Frederick appeared almost broken-hearted as he 
saw his brave army break up and disperse in all directions, 
pursued by the Austrian cavalry. When he was brought, 
almost against his will, to a place of safety, he wrote in 



XVI.] BATTLES OF LIEGNITZ AAT> TORGAU, 1S5 

pencil to his minister Friesenstem^ " All is lost : save the 
royal family." Shortly afterwards he despatched a second 
note : " The consequences of this battle will be worse than 
the battle itselfT I shall not survive the ruin of the Father- 
land. Adieu, for ever ! " Fortunately the King's fore- 
bodings were not realized. Although allies, the Russians 
and Austrians were very jealous of each other ; and this 
feeling prevented them from taking full advantage of their 
victory. The defeat of Kunersdorf, however, was not 
Frederick's only misfortune in this campaign. A body of 
troops was sent by him to defend Dresden; but before 
they arrived Count Schmettaii^ in order to save the militaiy 
chest, had delivered up the city to the Austrians. Some- 
what later, General Fink was compelled to surrender 
himself and his army, consisting of 5,000 men, to the 
Austrians at Maxenj whereupon General Daun took 
possession of Dresden, and determined to winter in Saxony. 
Frederick harassed him for some time ; but in January, 
1760, the excessive cold compelled even the King to go 
into winter quarters. 

17. The Battles of Liegnitz and Torg-au. — The position of 
Frederick became daily more tr}dng. Prussia was at this 
time a small kingdom, and its resources appeared now 
almost exhausted. On the other hand, there appeared 
nothing to prevent his enemies from continuing the war for 
an indefinite time. But a peace concluded after so many 
misfortunes could not but be unfavourable. Frederick 
therefore resolved to go on with the war, making the most 
of the small means at his disposal, in the summer of 1760 
he had to meet a fresh disaster. The force of General 
Fo2iqtie\ who had been entrusted with the defence of Silesia, 
was surrounded by the Austrians at Land^hiit. The 
Prussians never fought more bravely, but they could not 
hold out against greatly superior numbers. General Fouqu^ 



i86 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. 

himself was taken prisoner. Frederick tried to make up for 
this defeat by bombarding Dresden ; but, as Daun came to 
its relief, he had to raise the siege. He hastened to Silesia, 
where the successes of General Loudon made his presence 
necessary. The Austrians under Daim and Lasci accom- 
panied him, a division marching on either side of his army. 
At Liegiiitz these generals were joined by Loudon, and they 
resolved to surround and cut dov/n the Prussian army. 
Early in the morning of August 15, Loudon marched silently 
towards the heights of Pfaffendorf^ whence he expected to 
be able to attack the enemy in the rear. But during the 
night Frederick had taken possession of these very heights. 
Loudon gave battle, hoping to be assisted by Daun ; but 
the latter was ignorant of what was going on, so that the 
Prussians were soon victorious. When Daun advanced 
from another side, he was attacked by the Prussian right 
wing under the brave General Ziethen^ and driven back. 
Frederick's victory was thus complete. But he had no 
sooner gained this advantage, which made Silesia safe, than 
he had to meet new difficulties. The Russians, joined by 
the Austrians under Lasci, advanced to Berlin, and on 
October 4 they entered it in triumph. In a few days they 
retreated, a rumour having arisen that Frederick was 
marching to the relief of his capital. On Nov. 3 another 
battle was fought between the army of Frederick and that of 
Marshal Daun, who occupied a strong position near Torgau. 
The Piiissians attacked the Austrians in two divisions, the 
one led by Frederick himself, the other by Ziethen. Fre- 
derick's division suffered feaifully ; and he was under the im- 
pression at night that the battle would have to be renewed 
in the morning. But in the morning it was found that the 
Austrians had silently retreated. Daun marched to Dresden ; 
but the greater part of Saxony now fell anew into Frederick's 
hands, and he took up his winter quarters at Leipzig. 



XVI.] FREDERICK AND THE RUSSIANS. 187 

18. Movements of Prince Henry and Frederick in 1761. — 

During the summer of 176 1 Prince Henry, whom Frederick 
afterwards declared to have been the only general who 
made no mistakes during this war, succeeded in thwarting 
all the plans of Marshal Daun for the recovery of the 
part of Saxony which the Prussians had conquered. Much 
of the year was spent by Frederick himself in preventing 
the Russians under Btitterlin^ and the Austrians under 
Lotcdo7t^ irom. joining their forces. On August 12 the two 
armies succeeded in uniting, and Frederick was for some 
time shut up in his quarters near Bitnzelwitz. But the 
allies did nothing. They were still jealous of each other, 
and soon separated. They did far more damage when 
acting apart than when together. Loudon, by an unex- 
pected movement, hastened to Schweidnitz^ which, on 
October i, fell into his hands. By the possession of this 
town he commanded a large part of Silesia. On the other 
hand, the Russians wintered in Pomerania. The important 
town of Colberg resisted them for four months ; but, on 
December i, it had to surrender. 

19. Alliance of Frederick with the Russians. — The year 
1762 brought with it new liope for Frederick. On January 
5, the Empress Elizabeth of Russia died. Her successor, 
Peter II I. ^ not only made peace, but entered into an 
alliance with Frederick. As Sweden also signed a treaty of 
peace with Prussia, Frederick could now devote himself 
^vholly to the task of overcoming the Austrians. When 
joined by his Russian allies, he advanced to attack Daun at 
Ihtckersdorf. During the march the unwelcome nev.s 
came that Peter III. had been murdered ; and Czerjiitschef^ 
the Russian commander, received orders from the Empress 
Catherine II. to return with his army at once to Poland. 
Frederick persuaded Czernitschef to conceal his instructions 
for three days. Before that time had passed the Austrians 



1 88 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. 

were attacked and defeated. The Russians then withdrew ; 
and Frederick besieged Schweidnitz. It held out for nine 
weeks ; but on October 9, its provisions being exhausted, it 
surrendered. The position of Prussia was still further 
improved by a victory gained by Prince Henry over the 
Austrians at Freiberg on October 29, and by the continued 
successes of Prince Ferdinand in his opposition to the 
French, who had made great but vain efforts to subdue 
him. Whilst Frederick went into winter quarters, having 
previously agreed to an armistice with Austria, General 
Kleist, with an army of 10,000 men, carried the war into 
Franconia, and compelled the hostile German princes to 
conclude peace. 

20. The Peace of Hubertusburg. — The Empress Maria 
-Theresa, notwithstanding all that had passed, would gladly 
have continued the war ; but she knew she soon w^ould 
have to do so alone. The Empress Catherine had con- 
firmed the peace concluded with Frederick by her husband ; 
and France, exhausted by its struggle with England, was 
about to give up the contest. Negotiations between Austria 
and Saxony on the one hand, and Prussia on the other, 
were therefore entered into, and, on February 15, 1763, a 
few days after the conclusion of the Peace of Paris, the 
Treaty of Hiiberhcsburg was signed. The chief article of 
this treaty was the confirmation of Frederick in his posses- 
sion of Silesia. One of the most destructive wars in history 
thus left the two chief combatants in apparently the same 
position as that in which it had found them. But it was not 
really so. For seven years Prussia, trusting mainly to her 
own resources, had maintained her independence against 
the combined forces of several of the leading European 
Powers. A struggle so bravely carried on could not, when 
triumphantly closed, leave things exactly as they had been. 
As the result of the Seven Years' War, Prussia rose from the 



XVI.] FIRST PARTITION OF POLAND. 189 

position of a petty kingdom, which no one much respected 
or feared, to that of a Great Power. She also learned 
her o\Mi strength, and prepared the way for those great 
achievements by which she has since made her name 
famous. From this time Prussia became the rival of 
Austria in Germany ; and the minor States grouped them- 
selves around these two Powers according to their tastes 
and sympathies. The question w^hich of the two Powders 
was in the end to be supreme gradually became the leading 
question in German politics. It did not receive a final 
answer till our own day. 

21. Joseph II. Home government of Frederick the 
Great. — Francis I. died in 1765. He was succeeded in the 
same year by his son, Joseph 11. Maria Theresa had 
associated the latter with her in the government of the 
hereditary Austrian lands ; but during her lifetime he had 
very Httle authority. Under the vigorous government of 
Frederick II., Prussia gradually recovered from the effects 
of the Seven Year's War. Order w^as everywhere esta- 
blished, and those who had been ruined were helped by 
gifts of money and corn. The King's measures were by no 
means always popular. A Government monopoly of tobacco 
and coffee was especially disliked. On the whole, how- 
ever, his rule was wise and disinterested, and encouraged 
the energies of the people to flow in a variety of new 
directions. To Silesia, which had cost him so many sacri- 
fices, Frederick always devoted special attention ; and he 
was rewarded by seeing the population steadily increase in 
numbers and wealth. 

22. First partition of Poland. — During the interval of 
peace that followed the Treaty of Hubertusburg, Austria and 
Prussia joined Russia in doing a great public wrong. With- 
out the smallest provocation, these Powers seized, in 1772, 
a large part of Poland, and divided it between them 



I90 FREDERICK THE GREAT, [chap. 

Poland was very badty governed ; but that was no reason 
why it should be robbed of a third of its territory by 
neighbouring nations. By this first partition Austria re- 
ceived East Galicia and Lodoiiiiriaj Frederick, v/hat was 
called West Prussia^ but without the important towns of 
Danzig and Thorn. 

23. The ** Potato War." — A few years afterwards the 
peace of Germany was for a short time broken. On the 
death of Maxiuiilian Joseph., Elector of Bavaria, in 1777, 
the Emperor Joseph asserted a claim to Lower Bavaria, 
and, marching into the country, took possession of it. The 
true heir, Charles Theodore^ the Elector Palatine, was taken 
by surprise, and gave up to Austria two thirds of his inheri- 
tance on condition that he should retain the remaining 
third. The Elector Palatine's heir, the Duke of Zwei- 
driicken^ protested against this arrangement, and appealed 
to Frederick II. for help. Frederick, who was unwilling 
that Austria should become too powerful, sided against the 
Emperor, and once more marched into Bohemia. But no 
battle was fought. On receiving the. Circle of Bin'gan,, 
Austria consented to yield the rest of Bavaria. Peace 
was therefore, at Teschen, concluded on May 13, 1779. 
The war thus ended was nicknamed "the potato war,'' 
because the soldiers were said to have nothing to do except 
to cook their potatoes. 

24. Death of Maria Theresa. Attempted reforms of 
Joseph II. — Joseph's mother, Maria Theresa, died on 
November 29, 1780. He then became sole ruler of the 
Austrian dominions. He was full of good wishes for his 
subjects, and had long meditated daring schemes of reform. 
He instantly began to put his ideas into practice. No 
fewer than 624 monasteries were closed, and an edict of 
toleration was proclaimed, by which freedom of worship 
was granted to all Christain sects. The Emperor's attacks 



XVI.] JOSEPH 11, 191 



on the supposed rights of the Church excited such violent 
opposition that Pope Pius VI. himself visited Vienna 
He was received with enthusiasm by the people ; but the 
Emperor treated him with marked coldness, and conceded 
nothing. It was not only the Church that Joseph tried to 
reform- He attempted to simplify the administration of 
justice, to do away with the privileges of the nobility, and to 
introduce a uniform system of government throughout his 
hereditary states. In all this he was too rash. He forgot 
that great reforms cannot be effected all at once, and that 
it is impossible, even if it were desirable, to force nation- 
alities, whose circumstances are widely different, into one 
mould. In 1785 he made another attempt to obtain 
possession of Bavaria ; but his plans were again thwarted 
by Frederick, who formed a League for the preservation of 
the Imperial constitution. This League was joined by the 
majority of the temporal princes and by the Elector of 
Mainz, and may be regarded as the first attempt of Prussia 
seriously to contest with Austria the leading place in Ger- 
many. It came to an end immediately after the death of 
Frederick. 

25. Death of Frederick the Great. Frederick "William 
II. — Frederick was now an old man, and had survived 
most of those who had shared his former triumphs and 
defeats. Years had not softened his character. His mind, 
however, remained active to the last, and he never lost his 
interest in affairs of state. He died on August 17, 1786, 
and was succeeded by his nephew Frederick Wiiliain II. 
The latter proved a weak King, under the dominion of un- 
worthy favourites. 

26. Failure of Jos2ph XL's schemes. His death. — The 
Emperor Joseph soon found himself in circumstances of 
extreme difficulty. In 1788 he engaged in an unwise war 
with the Turks. He himself accompanied the Austrian 



192 FREDERICK THE GREAT, [CH. xvi.] 

troops ; but nothing creditable either to him or his army 
was done. Meanwhile, discontent had been rapidly 
growing up, especially in Hungary and the Austrian 
Netherlands. The people of the latter country — with the 
exception of Luxemburg — at length rebelled, and, or. 
October 22, 1789, formed an independent Government at 
Breda. The Hungarian nobles, indignant at the attack of 
the Emperor on their privileges, roused the peasantry to 
revolt ; and they so far succeeded that Joseph had to undo 
in Hungary all the reforms he had tried with so much 
zeal to carry out. His health had been seriously injured 
during the campaign against the Turks. The anxiety 
caused by the opposition of his subjects to his well-meant 
schemes on their behalf greatly increased his weakness, 
and he died, almost broken-hearted, on February 20, 1790. 

27. Leopold II. — Peter Leopold^ Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
Joseph XL's brother, succeeded to the Austrian inheritance. 
He was more cautious than Joseph, and, by returning to 
the principles which had always hitherto regulated Austrian 
policy, he soon restored his States to peace. On September 
20, 1790, he was elected Emperor. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND OF THE KINGDOM OF 
GERMANY, 

The French Revolution; hozu regarded in Germa7ty ; resolution of 
Leopold II. 07id F^-ederick Will a7?t II. to support the French 
King ; death of Leopold II. (l) — war declared by France against 
Austria; Prussia joins Austria; successes of the allies; their 
reverses ; Mainz taken by the French (2) — the campaigns of lygj 
and I7g4 (3) — Second Partition of Poland ; Austria is jealous 
of Prussia^ and intrigues with Russia against her; coldness of 
Frederick William II. in prosecuting the war ; secret treaty 
betzveen Austria and Russia ; Peace of Basel ; gains of Prussia 
and Austria by the Third Partition of Poland [a^ — campaigns 
of lygd a7td lygy hi Italy and Germany ; preli7?iinaries of 
peace signed at Leobe7t ; Treaty of Campo For77iio ; Congress of 
Rastatt (5) — Austria joins England and Russia against France; 
successes of the allies in ijgg; Russia withdraws from the war; 
battles of Marengo and IIohe7ili7ide7t ; Peace of Luneville (6) — 
alliance agai7ist Fra7tce in 180^ ; sur7-ender of Gene7'al Mack ; 
battle of Auste7'litz ; Peace of P7'essbu7g (7) — the Co7ifede7'atio7i 
of the Rhi7ie (8) — F7'ancis II. resigns the Itnperial Ci'ow7i; e7id 
of the Ro7na7i E7npire a7id the Ki7tgdom of Ge7many (9). 

I, The French Revolution. Death of Leopold II. — The 

French Revolution caused great excitement in Germany. 
Many thought it the beginning of better times for the whole 
of Europe ; but the princes naturally looked on it with fear 
and hatred. The French refugees, of whom there were a 

N 



194 FALL OF THE EMPLRE. [chap. 

♦ . 

great number, tried to strengthen the latter feeling's, and 
urged the princes to make war on France. Some time 
passed before the great German Powers, who were very 
jealous of one another, would consent to act together. At 
last the Emperor Leopold and Frederick William II, of 
Prussia met at Pillnitz, near Dresden, and resolved to 
support the French King. Before anything was done, how- 
ever, Leopold died, early in 1792. 

2. War with France. — Leopold was succeeded by his son 
Fra7tcis II. The French, irritated by foreign interference 
in their affairs, had already declared war against Austria, 
in April, 1792. Austria was joined by Prussia ; and a 
Prussian army, under Ferdinand^ Duke of Brunswick^ and 
accompanied by Frederick William IL himself, soon 
marched into France. The Prussians were aided by many 
French refugees and 6,000 Hessians. The war, which was 
to grow into, a contest unparalleled for the greatness of its 
operations and of the issues depending on it, was at first 
favourable to the German Powers. Valenciennes^ Longwy^ 
and Verdun all fell into the hands of the Prussian general ; 
and a rapid advance might easily have been made on Paris. 
But fortune soon changed. The Duke of Brunswick issued a 
proclamation calling upon the French people to submit to 
their lawful King, and threatening Paris with the fate of 
ancient Jerusalem if the slightest affront were offered to the 
royal family. This manifesto roused deep indignation 
throughout France, and thousands flocked from all parts of 
the country to drive back the invader. A slight action took 
place at Valmy^ after which the Duke of Brunswick, the 
Prussians having been much weakened by disease, gave 
orders for a retreat. The dispirited troops hastened towards 
the Rhine, which they crossed at Cobleniz. The Austrians 
were even less fortunate than their allies. They were over- 
taken by the French at Jemmappes^ where, on November 5, 



XVII.] WAR WITH FRANCE. 195 

1792, a battle was fought. After an obstinate fight the 
Aiistrians had to fly ; and in a few days the French entered 
Brussels. Since the time of Joseph II. the Netherlands 
had never been really loyal to Austria, so that they gladly 
threw off the yoke of that country, and proclaimed a 
Republic. In the meantime, Mamz had fallen into the 
hands of the French, who were warmly welcomed by a con- 
siderable number of the people. 

3. Progress of the War. — Almost immediately after the 
execution of Lewis XVI.^ France made war on Great 
Britain, Holland, and Spain. After much discussion the 
States of the Empire declared war against France, but they 
had little real share in the struggle that followed. The 
Austrian army in the Netherlands was commanded by the 
Duke of Cobtcrg, On March 18, 1793, it defeated the 
French at Neerwinden. A second victory was gained by 
the Austrians, aided by a British division, at Famars; and 
the towns of Conde and Valencie7ines were taken by the 
allies. These advantages were not followed up with much 
energy, so that the French soon won back lost ground. 
After being defeated at Wattignies^ on October 16, the 
Austrians retreated. The Austrian army on the Middle 
Rhine, commanded by Wurinser^ was routed on the 26th 
December by Hoche, in the neighbourhood of the Laiiter. 
The Prussians had, after a long siege^ recovered Mainz, and 
gained a victory at K aisers lantern j but, after the defeat 
of Wurmser, they had to fall back, and were able to hold 
only a small district round Mainz. In 1794 the Emperor 
Francis joined the Austrian troops in the Netherlands ; 
and, together with the allies, they gained several advantages. 
The town of Landrecies fell into their hands. But fortune 
again turned in favour of the French. On ]\Iay 22 PicJiegnt 
defeated the allies at Totir?tay ; and on June 26 a still 
greater victory was gained*by Jotwdan at Fleuriis. Whilst 



196 FALL OF THF FMPLRF, [chap. 

the former general prepared to invade Holland, the latter 
forced the Austrians back upon the Rhine, and compelled 
them to cross it on October 5. The left bank of the Middle 
Rhine had already been given up to the French by the 
Austrians and Prussians, who, after^ having been victorious 
at Kaiserslaiitern on May 22, had been defeated at the same 
place on July 1 5. 

4. The Second and Third Partitions of Poland. Prussia 
makes peace with France. — Whilst the war with France 
was going on, the attention of the German Powers was 
much occupied by the affairs of Poland. In 1793 Prussia 
joined Russia in effecting the Second Partition of that 
kingdom, receiving the larger part of Great Poland^ with 
the cities of Thorn and Danzig. Austria was filled with 
jealousy at the increased power of her ally, and ThiigiU^ 
the minister who directed the Austrian policy, intrigued so 
much with Russia against Prussia that King Frederick 
William II. began to prosecute the war with France coldly, 
and to think of withdrawing altogether from the struggle. 
In 1794 a great revolt, headed by Kosciuszko, took place in 
Poland. Prussia tried to put it down ;^ but it was finally 
quelled by Russian troops. Early in 1795 Russia and 
Austria concluded a secret treaty, dividing Poland for the 
third and last time. The Prussian King, suspicious of the 
policy of the courts of Vienna and St. Petersburg, resolved 
to make peace with France ; and on April 5, 1795, the 
Treaty of Basel was signed. Prussia ceded to France all 
her possessions on the left bank of the Rhine. A little 
later Hanover and Hessen-Cassel also made peace with 
France. The secret understanding of Austria and Russia 
with respect to the Third Partition of Polajtd was made 
known to Prussia on August 8, 1795. By this arrangement 
New East Prussia, with Warsaw, was added to the 
Prussian monarchy ; and Austria received West Galicia, 



XVII.] THE PEACE 01^ CAMPO FORMIO, 197 

5. The Peace of Campo Formio. — During the summer of 
1795 there was a lull in the war between Austria and 
France ; but in September the Austrians were driven across 
the Main, They soon rallied, and by a victory at H'dchst^ 
near Frankfurt, compelled the French to retire to the 
opposite side of the Rhine. In the campaign of 1796 
Austria had to put forth her whole strength. Her army 
in Italy was commanded by General Beaiilieu. Opposed 
to him was Napoleon Btionaparte^ a young general who 
soon became the forem^ost man in Europe. Having forced 
Sardinia to accept peace, Buonaparte advanced against the 
x^ustrians, and, after a fearful struggle, defeated them at the 
bridge of Lodi. Marshal Wtirmser was sent with a con- 
siderable army to their relief ; but he was several times 
defeated, and on September 9 was obliged to take refuge 
in Ma?itua. Meanwhile important operations had been 
going on in Germany. Two French armies, under the 
command of Moreau and Joiirdan^ had gone far into the 
country ; but on August 22 Jourdan was defeated at 
Netimark by the Archduke Charles. Two days afterwards 
a second victory was gained by the Archduke over the 
same general. Moreau, being thus left alone, retreated 
towards the Rhine. In Italy the Austrian arms continued 
unsuccessful. An army, which was placed under Marshal 
Alvinzi^ gained some advantages ; but on November 17 
it was driven with great loss from Ascole. When fighting 
was begun again in January, 1797, Alvinzi was once more 
defeated at Rivolij and on P^ebruary 2 Mantua capitulated. 
Buonaparte now conceived the bold project of carrying the 
war into the hereditary territories of Austria. In this he 
succeeded. Crossing the Alps between Italy and Carinthia, 
he entered the latter country, and took up his head quarters 
at Leoben. As he was thus cut off from all help, a vigorous 
effort on the part of Austria might perhaps have freed hei 



198 FALL OF THE EMPLRE, [chap. 

from her great enemy ; but she had been thoroughly 
humbled, and the Government now trembled for Vienna 
itself. Negotiations were therefore entered upon ; and the 
preliminaries of peace were signed at Leoben on April 1 8. 
Various difficulties afterwards arose; but on October 17, 
1797, the Treaty of Campo Formio was agreed upon. The 
Austrian Netherlands were ceded to France. In return 
for her Italian possessions, which were formed into the 
Cisalpine Republic, Austria received Ve?tice, Friuli, Istria 
Dahnatia, and the islands off the Dalmatian coast. By 
a secret article the Emperor consented to cede the left 
bank of the Rhine to France, and to settle compensations 
for the deprived princes. Immediately after the conclusion 
of this treaty, a Congress was opened by Buonaparte at 
Rastatt, for the purpose of settling the terms of peace 
between France and the Empire. At this Congress the 
German princes were treated with much insolence by the 
French envoys, and had to yield every demand of the 
conqueror, however unreasonable. The conditions of peace, 
however, were still under consideration j when a change in 
the aspect of affairs suddenly brought the proceedings, of 
the Congress to a close. 

6. Austria joins England and Russia against France. 
Peace of Luneville, — After the conclusion of the Peace of 
Campo Formio, Austria watched with great jealousy the 
violent doings of France in Italy and Switzerland. She 
therefore willingly formed an alliance with Russia and 
England against the common enemy ; and war broke out 
again in 1799. It began brilliantly for the allies. The 
Archduke Charles delivered Germany from the French by 
a great victory gained over General Jourdan at Stockach 
on March 25 ; and soon afterwards the army of Massena 
was driven out of the western part of Switzerland. In 
Italy Marshal I<[ray was victorious over the French, under 



XVII.] PEACE OF LUNEVILLE, 199 

Scherer^ at Verona and MagJtajto. When the great 
Russian commander, Marshal Sziwaroff^ had joined the 
Austrians, the alHes defeated the French in battle after 
battle, and freed almost all Italy from their yoke. Next 
year these advantages were quickly lost. The Russian 
Emperor, whose forces were not so successful in Switzerland, 
withdrew from the war ; and Buonaparte, whose very name 
now struck fear into the hearts of his enemies, hal 
returned from Egypt to take the command of the French. 
On June 2, 1800, Genoa opened its gates to the Austrians ; 
but on that very day, after his daring march across the Alps, 
Buonaparte entered Alilan in triumph. On June 14 the 
great battle of Marengo v/as fought. The defeat of the 
Austrians was so complete that by this one battle the 
French regained almost all they had lost in Italy. At 
the same time General Moreau was advancing victoriously 
through Germany. On December 3 he gained the 
splendid victory of Hohenlinden. The Austrian Govern- 
ment no longer felt itself able to continue the war, and on 
February 9, 1801, the Peace oi Luneville was signed. This 
peace confirmed that of Campo Formio. The Emperor 
again yielded the Austrian Netherlands. He also con- 
sented to recognise the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, and 
Ligurian Republics ; and gave the Margraviate of Breisgau 
to the Duke of Modena, and the archbishoprick of Salzburg 
as a secular principality, together with the title of Elector, 
to the Grand Duke of Ticscany. Besides these concessions, 
Austria consented to the German lands on the left bank of 
the Rhine being yielded to France. They were formally 
given up by the States of the Empire, whose plenipo- 
tentiaries began their inglorious labours at Regenslncrg on 
August 24, 1802. France thus gained for a time the long- 
coveted Rhine boundary. The princes who lost territory 
by the arrangement received gifts of secularised Church 



200 FALL OF THE EM PL RE, [chap. 

property and mediatised free cities on the right bank. 
The Landgrave oi LLesseit-Cassel^ the Duke of Wiirte^nherg^ 
and the Margrave of Baden^ were made Electors. Of the 
spiritual Electors, only the Archbishop of Mainz kept his 
offices ; and his See was transferred to Regensbtirg. Liibeck, 
Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfurt, Augsburg, and Niirnberg, 
were the only cities allowed to remain free. The freedom 
of not less than 48 had been suppressed. 

7. New Alliance against France. Battle of Austerlitz. 
Peace of Pressburg. — Germany had never been so 
thoroughly humbled as now. Her territory was divided, 
and the people handed from one ruler to another at the 
bidding of a foreign conqueror. The disunion of the 
various members of the Empire had thus at last borne 
bitter fruit. Little more was needed to put an end to the 
Empire • altogether ; and the unavoidable change soon 
came. Buonaparte, while ruling France ^vith wisdom and 
energy, showed more and more contempt for the rights 
of all other nations. In 1803 he seized Hanover ^ as if it 
had been a part of Great Britain. Prussia protested against 
this outrage, but in general held selfishly aloof,, hoping to 
gain through the losses of her neighbours. The territory of 
the Empire was violated in 1804 by the seizure of the Duke 
of E7ighieny but the Diet adjourned to avoid interference in 
ihe matter. Austria, however, was preparing for war. In 
1805 she once more formed an alliance with Engla^id and 
Russia; and the three Powers, which were joined by 
Sweden, resolved to make a grand effort that should utterl/ 
crush their opponent. But, by his rapid movements and 
well-arranged plans, Buonaparte got the better of the allies^ 
He hastened towards the Rhine, and at once crossed into 
German territory. Fidelity to the Empire was so entirely a 
thing of the past on the part of mmy of the princes, that he 
Uad no difficulty in bringing Bavaria, IViirteniberg^ and 



.XVII.] THE PEACE OF FRESSBURG. 2ol 

Baden over to the side of France. General Mack com- 
manded an Austrian army near Ulm. He allowed himself 
to be cut off from all communication with Vienna, after 
which he was several times defeated. Taking refuge in 
Ulm, he was compelled, on October 17, to capitulate with 
his whole army, which was then made up of 30,000 men. 
On November 13 Buonaparte was in the palace of Schbn- 
brtinii in Vienna ; and a few days afterwards he had crossed 
the Danube in order to attack the Austrians and Prussians, 
who had united their forces in Moravia. The battle of 
Austerlitz was fought on December 2. The allies out- 
numbered the French, but mere numbers were not a match 
for skilful generalship and the trust of French soldiers in 
their leader ; and the battle ended in a great victory for 
Buonaparte. The war, however, need not have ended, if 
the Emperor Francis had been courageous enough to 
persevere. The Russians were willing to go on fighting ; 
the Archduke Ferdinand was at the head of an army of 
20,000 men, with which he completely overcame the 
Bavarians ; and a short time before the French navy had 
been made powerless by the great victory of the English at 
Trafalgar, Besides, it seemed not improbable that Prussia 
might at last be aroused to a sense of her duty to the Em- 
pire and to Europe. But the Emperor wished for peace, 
and, in a personal interview with Buonaparte, arranged pre- 
liminaries. A treaty was signed at Pressbnrg on December 
25. Austria had never before accepted terms so humiliating. 
Besides ceding Venice to Italy, she gave up Tyrol^ 
Vorarlberg, and other lands to Bavaria, and her territory in 
^wabia to Wiirtemberg and Baden. In return for these 
sacrifices she received Salzburg^ the Elector of Salzburg 
being transferred to Wiirzbiug^ which was given up to him 
by Bavaria. Not content with these changes, Buonaparte 
raised the Electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg to the rank 



202 FALL OF TLLE EMPLRE, [chap.- 

of Kings, The Emperor had to recognize them and the 
Elector of Baden as sovereigns wholly independent within 
their territories. In return for Hanover^ Prussia yielded 
Ansbach to Bavaria^ Cleve and Neitfchatel to France. 
Soon afterwards Buonaparte gave Cleve and Berg — received 
from Bavaria in return for Ansbach — to his brother-in-law, 
Joachi7Jt Murat., and Neufchatel to his friend and councillor, 
Alexander Berthier. 

8. The Confederation of the Rhine.— The Holy Roman 
Empire still existed in name ; but a step w^as now taken 
which brought about its fall. Buonaparte knew how much 
it would help him to have a Power within Germany itself 
whose friendship he could always trust. It would once 
have been impossible to form such a Power ; but now all 
was changed. To their utter shame, German princes were 
found who could consent, for their own selfish ends, to 
support a foreigner against the Fatherland. On June 12, 
1806, the Kings of Bavaria and Wilrtemberg^ the Elector 
of Baden^ the Landgrave of Hessen^ the Duke of Berg^ the 
Archbishop of Regensbjirg., and other princes, formally de- 
clared themselves separated from the Empire, and acknow- 
ledged the French Emperor as their protector. The league 
received the name of the Coiifederation of the Rhine^ and 
undertook to aid Buonaparte in war with an army of 63,000 
men. The Archbishop of Regensburg, who had hitherto 
been Electoral Archchancellor, was appointed by Buona- 
parte, with the title of Prlnce-Prinute, his representative in 
the Confederation, 

9. The fall of the Empire and of the Kingdom of Ger- 
many. — The final stroke had now been delivered, and the 
ancient Empire, the true representative of the Empire of the 
Ca:isars, fell to pieces. On August 6, 1806, Francis II. 
formally resigned the Imperial crown. The kingdom of 
Germany, as well as the Roman Empire, thus came to an 



XVII.] '' EMPEROR OF Austria:' 203 

end. Ipx 1804 Francis, wholly mistaking the meaning of the 
word Emperor^ had added to his existing title that of 
Hereditary Eiiiperor of Austria, In the Treaty of Pres- 
burg he is called Emperor of Germaiiy a7id Austria. 
From 1806 he was simply E^nperor of Austria; and his 
successors have borne the same title. After his resignation 
of the true Imperial crown Germany was no longer, even 
in name, a united State acknowledging a common head. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. 

Desire of Buonaparte to humble Prussia ; war betzveen France and 
Prussia; battle of yena [i)^terror of the Prussians ; Buonaparit 
ente7's Berlin (2) — battle of Friedland; Peace of Tilsit (3) — war 
between Austria and France in i8og ; battle of Wagrant; Peace 
of Schonh'unn (4) — loyalty of the Tyrolese; bi-avery of Hofer ; 
shot by the French (5) — preparation for 7Var in Prussia (6) — • 
Frederick William III. appeals to the Prussian people to arm 
against the French; alliance between Prussia and Russia (7)^ 
battles of Liitzen and Bautzen; armistice; the allies joined by 
Austj'ia and Sweden (8) — victory of BlUcher at the Katzbach; 
defeat of the allies before Dresden; defeat of Va^idamme attd 
Ney (9) — the battle of Leipzig (10) — the war ca7^ried into F7'ance; 
the First Peace of Paris (11) — the Cong7'ess of Vienna; escape oj 
Buonaparte froni Flba (12) — the battle of Waterloo ; the Second 
Peace of Paris (13) — changes of territory in Germany (14) — the 
Ger??tan Confederatio?i (15) — German writers (i6) — Music in 
Ger??iany (17). 

I. War between Prussia and France. The Battle of 
Jena. — The selfish withdrawal of Prussia from the struggle 
with Buonaparte had hitherto saved it from disaster ; but 
its turn now came. Frederick William II. had died on 
November, 1797. He was very extravagant, and died deeply 
in debt. • His son Frederick Will lain I 11.^ who was twenty- 
seven years old at the time of his accession, was a man 
of much worthier character. This sovereign was deeply 



[CK. XVIII.] THE BATTLE OF JENA. 205 

mortified by the formation of the Rhenish Confederation, 
partly because it threatened to destroy the supremacy of 
Prussia in North Germany. Buonaparte was at no pains 
to make him friendly. In fact, the French Emperor was 
jealous of the independence of Prussia, and anxious for an 
opportunity to humble it. He made proposals for the 
restoration of Hanover to the King of Great Britain, and was 
even unmanly enough to assail the character of Louise^ the 
beautiful and popular Prussian queen. Stung by tl!ese 
and many other insults, Frederick William at length, in 
1 806, placed his army on a war footing, and demanded that 
the French troops should quit Germany. Unfortunately the 
Prussians were altogether unfit for the struggle into which 
they were thus hurried. The main body of the army had 
never had experience of actual warfare, while the leaders 
were for the most part slaves to mere form, puffed up 
with the glories of their fathers, and without any true 
notion of the strength of the enemy they had to deal 
with. The aged Ferdmand^ Duke of Brimswlck, who 
again commanded, took up his station to the north of the 
Thuringian Forest, and awaited the approach of the French. 
On October 10, a preliminary engagement between the 
French and a Prussian corps under Prince Lewis, the 
King's cousin, took place near Saalfeld. Prince Lewis was 
defeated and slain. This victory made the French masters 
of the Saal, and enabled them to cut off the Prussians from 
communication with Saxony, which was an unwilling ally 
of Frederick William in the war. On October 14 a great 
battle was fought at Aicerstiidt and Je^ia. The Duke of 
Brunswick commanded at the former place, and Prince 
LLohcnlohe at the latter. Neither was aware of the movements 
of the other ; and both were defeated. At the beginning 
of the battle the Duke of Brunswick was mortally wounded. 
A few regiments fought bravely ; but in the Prussian army 



2o6 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. 

, « 

as a whole there was the utmost confusion. Great numbers 
were slain, and afterwards 20,000 men were made prisoners. 

2. Buonaparte enters Berlin. — The results of the battle 
at Jena were even more disastrous than the battle itself A 
few generals distinguished themselves by their brave resist- 
ance. Although Blacker^ who afterwards became so famous, 
was obliged in the end to give in, he did not do so till, with 
a small body of troops, he had done much harm to the 
French in and near Lilbeck. Generals Gneisenau and Schill 
continued to defend Colberg against a greatly superior force, 
and, when Courbiere, who held Graudenz^ was told that 
there was no longer a King of Prussia, and that he had 
better yield, he replied, '^ If there is no longer a King of 
Prussia, then / will be King in Graudenz.^^ These, however, 
were exceptions. The campaign had been begun without 
any definite plan ; and now the whole country seemed over- 
whelmed with fear. Even Magdeburg^ with its garrison of 
22,000 men, capitulated without striking a blow. The King 
and Queen fled to Konigsberg, and Buonaparte took pos- 
session of Berhn. The people of the capital submitted 
so readily that Buonaparte affected to doubt whether he 
ought to be proud or ashamed of having conquered such 
a nation. He surpassed himself by his robberies at this 
time. Amongst other things, he took away the sword of 
PVederick the Great, which he pompously declared was 
worth more than twenty millions of dollars, and the car of 
victory above the Brandenburg gate. 

3. The Peace of Tilsit. — What remained of the Prussian 
army, under Lestocq and Kalkreuth, joined the Russians on 
the Prussian frontier. On February 7 and 8, 1807, a battle 
was fought at Eylau^ near Konigsberg. On the whole, the 
advantage seemed to rest with the allies ; but nothing came 
of the battle. The decisive contest took place on June 12 
near Friedland, The French gained a complete victory, and 



XVIII.] PEACE OF TILSIT, 207 

in a few days held K'onigsberg and Tilszt^DanzighdiYmg been 
compelled to yield in the last days of May. Buonaparte 
had an interview with the Russian Emperor on a raft in 
the middle of the Niemen, and induced him to make peace. 
As PiTissia could not hold out without help, the Pegice of 
Tilsit was signed on July 9. Hard terms were exacted of 
Prussia by this treaty. The whole of the territory between 
the Elbe and the Rhine was taken from her, and, together 
with B^'unswick^ H'essen-Cassel, and part of Hanover^ 
formed into a new kingdom, called the Kingdom of West- 
phalia^ of which Buonaparte's youngest brother Jerome was 
made King. The Polish territory of Prussia Avas called the 
Graitd Dicchy of Warsaw, and given to the Elector of 
Saxony, who, in return for having deserted Prussia after the 
battle of Jena, was raised to kingly rank by Buonaparte. 
Danzig was declared a free town. The Prussian King thus 
lost the better part of his territory, and no fewer than 
5,000,000 subjects. He was obliged also to reduce his 
army to 42,000 men, and to pay an indemnity of 140,000,000 
francs. That a country so humbled should ever recover 
itself, and strike another blow for freedom, seemed im- 
possible. 

4, New v/ar between Austria and France. Battle of 
Wagram. Peace of Schonbrunn. — Austria had never looked 
on the results of the battle of Austerlitz as final. She Was 
all along resolved to recover, if possible, her lost territorv. 
Whilst Buonaparte was occupied in Spai?t, Francis made 
great preparations for the forthcoming struggle. The army 
was strengthened, and the people roused by ever}^ means 
that could excite their enthusiasm to come forward and join 
the newly established Landwehr. No effort was spared to 
make the war in every sense a people's war. The hopes of 
Germany were raised to a high pitch ; but, as the event 
proved, the time of her deliverance had not yet come. On 



2o8 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE, [chap. 

April 9, 1809, the campaign was opened by the Archduke 
Charles^ who com.manded the whole army, crossing the Inn 
in order to take possession of Bavaria. Several battles were 
fought in quick succession, and in each the Archduke was 
defeated. After a battle at Echnuhl, he fell back on Regens- 
burgj but he was driven from this position also, and obliged 
to retreat towards Bohemia. The right bank of the Danube 
was thus left open to the French, and Buonaparte at once 
hastened to Vienna, which, after a' slight resistance, he 
entered in triumph for the second time, on May 12. The 
Archduke Charles was soon in motion at the head of his 
troops ; and the French crossed the Danube on a bridge of 
boats, in order to give him battle. A fierce battle was 
fought on May 21 and 22, on the plain between Aspern and 
Essli7ige?t^ in which Rudolf of Habsburg had formerly 
defeated King Ottocar of Bohemia. This time the Austrians 
Vv^ere victorious ; and there is reason to suppose that, if their 
mdVements had been somewhat more rapid, the whole 
French army might have been cut off. On July 4 Buona- 
parte again crossed the Danube, his army having meanwhile 
received vast reinforcements ; and, on July 5 and 6, the 
battle of Wagram was fought. Crowds anxiously watched 
the progress of the battle from the towers of Vienna. The 
Austrian right wing was victorious ; but, the left wing having 
been surrounded, the Archduke Charles had to retreat. 
The Austrian Emperor now felt that he would be no longer 
justified in continuing the war, and a few days afterwards 
an armistice was concluded. The Peace of ScJib7ibrunn was 
signed on October 14. Besides ceding Camiola^ Friuli^ 
Croatia^ part of Dalmatia^ and Trieste^ Austria yielded 
Salzburg to Bavaria^ and the greater part of Galicia to 
Russia and the King of Saxony. 

5. Loyalty of the Tyrolese. Hofer. — During this war 
several brave struggles had been carried on in different 



xviir.] LOYALTY OF THE TYROLESE. 209 

parts of Germany. Schill harassed the enemy for some 
time in Brunswick and Mecklenburg; but in the end he 
was obliged to take refuge in Stralsund^ where he was 
killed. Baron i'o?i D'ornberg tried, but in vain, to rouse the 
Hessians against King Jerome. Frederick William of 
Brunswick^ the son of the Duke who fell at Auerstadt, 
brought together a body of men which received the 
name of the Black Troops and fought hard for the re- 
covery of his lands. But he and his comrades had at last 
to embark for England. More memorable than these isolated 
efforts was the great struggle of the Tyrolese. Although 
their country had been annexed to Bavaria, they had re- 
mained loyal to the House of Habsburg, and at the out- 
break of war rose as one man, under the leadership of 
Hofer^ Speckbacher and Straub, The Bavarians and 
French were defeated, and driven from the country. After 
the battle of Wagram, Marshal Lefebvre regained possession 
of Lnnsbruck ; but the Tyrolese again succeeded in freeing 
their country, and Hofer became for some time head of the 
Government. By the peace of Schonbrunn, Bavaria was 
confirmed in her possession of Tyroly and Austria herself 
induced the people to lay down their arms. Hofer again 
rebelled ; but his contrymen were no longer able to support 
him, and he was obliged to conceal himself in the snows of 
the Alps. Here he was betrayed to the French, who^ in 
1 810, basely shot him, at Mantua, as a traitor. 

6. Preparation for war in Prussia. — Germany now seemed 
to have reached the lowest depth of humiliation. Some 
Germans pretended to believe that the state to which 
Buonaparte had brought them was the best for their country. 
The general feeling of the nation was more healthy. In 
Prussia especially many hopeful signs were showing them- 
selves. The bitter experience through which that country 
had passed brought forth good fruit. After the Peace of 

o 



2IO STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. 



Tilsit, the King dismissed IJaiigwitz^ the minister who was 
chiefly responsible for the policy which Prussia had before 
followed. Haugwitz's successor, Stein, was one of the ablest 
statesmen of his age. He abolished serfdom, threw open 
civil offices to all classes, and induced the King to concede 
various municipal rights to the towns. The King was finally 
obliged to dismiss him as an enemy of France, and he took 
refuge in Russia. By the efforts mainly of Wilhehn vo7i 
Humboldt, the school system of Prussia was placed on a 
basis which even yet makes it the envy of other nations. 
All the leading public men strove to awaken in the hearts of 
the people a patriotic feeling which should lead them at the 
proper moment to aid in throwing off the French yoke from 
Germany. The "Tugendbund" or "League of Virtue" did 
good service to the national cause. It was joined by men of 
all ranks, but especially by professors and students, who 
thirsted for an opportunity to undo the disasters caused by 
the faults and mistakes of the past. The military system of 
Prussia was as efficiently re-organized as the civil. Under 
Gneiseiiau and Scharnhorst the provision that the Prussian 
army should not exceed 42,000 men was skilfully evaded. 
The army was nominally kept at this figure ; but so soon as 
one set of men was sufficiently trained, it was replaced by 
another. Thus all the men of the country were silently 
made ready for the great struggle to which every one looked 
forward. 

7. Frederick William appeals to the Prussian people. 
^Alliance of Russia and Prussia. — Some years passed before 
the fitting time for attacking Buonaparte came. In 1 810 he 
annexed to France the free towns of Brenien, HainbiLrg, and 
Lilbeck, and the whole northern coast of Germany as far as 
the Elbe. After the disastrous retreat from Russia, Germans 
felt that they would probably never have a more favourable 
opportunity for freeing themselves. Prussia was the first 



XViir.] ALLIANCE OF RUSSLA AND PRUSSIA. 211 

to act. Berlin being in the power of the French^ Frederick* 
William went to Breslau; and from thence, on February 3, 
1813, he issued an appeal to the youth of Prussia to arm in 
defence of the Fatherland. On February 18 he met the 
Russian Emperor at Kalischj and there an alliance was 
formed against the common enemy. Years before the same 
monarchs had met at midnight at the grave of Frederick 
the Great, and solemnly sworn to be true to each other in 
the stmggle for the deliverance of Germany and Europe. 
The time had now come for the fulfilment of their vow. 
On March 1 5 war was formally declared by Prussia against 
France. Frederick William had not overrated the patriotism 
of his subjects. Young men from all parts of the country 
flocked to the national standard. They breathed a very 
different spirit from that of the troops whom Buonaparte 
had so easily crushed at Jena. The Prussian army was by 
this time equipped and disciplined in accordance with the 
wants of the age ; and it was moved by a common impulse, 
the desire to avenge the injuries the French had inflicted 
on (Germany, and the resolve that, cost what it might, they 
should be driven from German soil. The foundations of 
the Prussian military system had been laid by the creation 
of the Landwehr and Landsttir??i^ the latter intended for 
the defence of the homes of the people in case of utter 
defeat on the field. 

8. Victories of the French. Armistice. The Allies 
joined by Austria and Sweden. — The first important en- 
gagement took place on May 2, 1813, near Lutsen^wh^vQ 
Gustavus Adolphus was killed nearly two hundred years 
before. Both Russians and Prussians, fighting in view of their 
sovereigns, who shared the fortunes of the whole campaign, 
behaved well. Bliicher especially distinguished himself by 
the bravery with which he led his troops from assault to 
assault. But the allies were greatly outnumbered by the 



212 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. 

French, and retreated in good order to Batiizen. The 
King of Saxony, who had hitherto hesitated, was now com- 
pelled by Buonaparte to join him. On May 21 a second 
battle was fought at Bautzen. The allies, being still inferior 
in numbers to the French, were again defeated ; but they 
did more harm to the enemy than they themselves suffered, 
and their retreat was so skilfully conducted that the French 
were unable to secure a single trophy. Buonaparte pursued 
the allies into Silesia ; but on June 4 he consented to an 
armistice for three weeks. Whilst the armistice lasted both 
sides prepared vigorously for a renewal of the contest. 
Austria came forward and offered her services as mediator. 
In the negotiations which followed she was represented 
by Prince Metlernich, a diplomatist of high distinction, 
whose ability Buonaparte already knew. A Congress 
was opened at Prague on July 5, and the armistice was 
prolonged till August 10. Terms of peace, however, could 
not be agreed upon ; and it was resolved to go on with the 
war. But there was now a great change in the relative 
position of the various parties. Austria, which Buonaparte 
had hoped to keep neutral, formally joined . the allies. 
Bei'jiadotte^ the Crown Prince of Sweden, had also come to 
their aid. 

9. Progress of the War. — When the war began again 
Buonaparte sent Marshal Oudmot with an army of 80,000 
men to seize Berlin. On August 22 this army halted at 
Gross-Beeren^ hoping to enter the capital next day ; but 
during the night it was fiercely attacked by a Prussian force 
under General Billozu^ and driven towards the Elbe. 
Buonaparte himself had set out for Silesia in order to attack 
BlilcJier; but, learning that the main division of the allied 
army, under Prince Schwaj^tzeiiberg^ was advancing from 
Bohemia on Dresden, he was obliged to retreat on the very 
day on which Marshal Oudinot was defeated. He left in 



xviii.] THE BATTLE OF LEIPZIG, 213 

Silesia, under Marshal Macdoiiald^ an army of 80,000 men. 
Bliicher, who had avoided an engagement with the main 
French army, at once advanced to meet Macdonald. On 
August 26 the two armies stood opposite each other, separ- 
ated by a stream called the Katzbach, Bliicher allov\'ed a 
number of the enemy to cross this stream, and then 
exclaimed, " Now my lads, there are enough of them — 
forward !" The Prussians and Russians obeyed heartily, 
and the French were utterly routed. From this day, Bliicher, 
who was a great favourite with the soldiers, was known as 
Marshal " Vorwdrts'^ He was created Pleld Marshal, and 
afterwards Prince Wahlstadt. While the battle of the Katz- 
bach was being won, and on the following day, another was 
fought before Dresden. On both days the allies were unsuc- 
cessful. Having suffered great losses, they retreated towards 
Bohemia. A few days afterwards they partly made up for 
this defeat by a victory gained over General Vandani7iie 
near Top lit 2. Vandamme himself and 10,000 men were 
made prisoners. Buonaparte now tried a second time to 
gain possession of Berlin. On September 6, Marshal Ney 
came up with the Prussians at Dennewitz^ and at once 
attacked them. The French army was almost double that 
of the Prussians, and fought with great bravery ; but the 
Prussians stoutly resisted till the Russians and Swedes, 
under Bernadotte, arrived, when the French were forced to 
give way. They lost a large number of men, and were 
pursued as far as the Elbe. 

10. The Battle of Leipzig". — During the month of Sep- 
tember, Buonaparte strove hard to bring the main alHed 
army to a general engagement; but this the allies cautiously 
avoided. At length Bliicher, after some successful fighting^ 
joined the army of Bernadotte at Diibeit. About the same 
time the main army, leaving Bohemia, marched through the 
passes of the Erz mountains, and reached the plains of 



214 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE, [chap. 

Saxony. It was obvious that the alHe's intended to concen- 
trate behind Buonaparte, and cut off his communication 
with France. He therefore left Dresden, and retreated 
towards Leipzig, which he entered on October 14. He did 
this partly because he had been deserted by the Bavarians, 
who, now that he had begun to be unsuccessful, entered into 
an alliance with Austria. The greater part of the allied 
army was already in the neighbourhood of Leipzig, so that 
the decisive contest was evidently at hand. Prince 
Schwartzenberg and Buonaparte, aware of the great issues 
depending on the approaching battle, did everything they 
could to arouse the enthusiasm of their troops ; and their 
efforts were not without effect. The battle began on the morn- 
ing of October 16. In the evening the position of the armies 
was very much the same as in the morning, except that 
Bliicher had got the better of Marshal Ney at the village of 
Mockerjt. But this time the French were greately outnum- 
bered by the allies, and the latter expected fresh troops. 
Buonaparte saw therefore how the battle must end, and on 
the 1 7th made proposals for an armistice, offering terms highly 
favourable to the allies ; but the latter declined to grant his 
request. On the i8th, Bernadotte having meanwhile joined 
the allies, the battle was renewed. Whilst it was going on, 
the troops of Saxony and Wiirtemberg went over to the 
enemy. On this terrible day the French kept up their old 
fame ; but in spite of all their efforts they were steadily 
forced back, and when night put an end to fighting it was 
plain that a retreat could not be avoided. It began at dawn 
on the 19th. As the troops were crossing the Elster^ the 
allies stormed the gates of Leipzig, and caused much con- 
fusion. A large part of the army had not yet crossed when 
tiie only bridge open to them was, probably by mistake, 
suddenly blown up. Many of those left behind were slain ; 
others were drowned, and upwards of 1^,000 were made 



XVIII.] FIRST PEACE OF PARIS. 215 

prisoners. Great quantities of cannon and ammunition fell 
into the hands of the allies. In this fearful battle Buona- 
parte lost upwards of 70.000 men ; and the allies not fewer 
than 40,000. As the Emperor Alexander and King Frede- 
rick William, and, a few hours afterwards, the Emperor 
Francis, with their generals, triumphantly entered Leipzig, 
all felt that the chief part of their task was fulfilled, and 
that the deliverance of Germany was now a question of only 
a very short time. 

1 1 . The War carried into France. The First Peace of 
Paris. — As the French were retreating, the Bavarian 
General Wrede tried to stop their passage at Hanau^ but 
was himself defeated. Buonaparte was thus enabled to 
push on towards the Rhine, which he crossed at Mainz on 
November 2. His power in Germany was now for ever at 
an end. The German princes who had adhered to him 
deserted him. The fortresses garrisoned by his troops on 
the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula surrendered ; the Rhenish Con- 
federation was broken up ; the Kingdom of Westphalia 
disappeared ; the Elector of Hessen and the Dukes of 
Brunswick and Oldenburg took possession of their heredi- 
tary territories, and Hanover was given back to the King of 
Great Britain. But the allies were not satisfied. They felt 
that, so long as Buonaparte occupied the throne of France, 
they were not safe. They therefore resolved to carry the 
war into France itself, and not to sheathe the sword till the 
power of their enemy had been for ever crushed. A Prussian 
army, under Biilow, marched northwards to the aid of the 
Dutch. Schwartzenberg, with the mxain army, crossed the 
Rhine at Basel. Between these tw^o was Blijchcr, who 
entered France between Mainz and Coblentz. On January 
29, 1 8 14, he was defeated by Buonaparte ; but on February i 
his army joined that of Schwartzenberg, and the two to- 
gether gained a brilliant victory at La Rothiere. They then 



2i6 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE, [chap. 

separated. The result of their separation was that Buona- 
parte gained several victories. On March 9 and 10, how- 
ever, the French were defeated at Lao7i by Bliicher, who 
had joined the army of Biilow. Having attacked Prince 
Schwartzenberg at Arcis-sur-Aube on March 20 without 
any definite result, Buonaparte formed the bold plan of 
getting behind the main allied army, in the hope that by 
cutting off their communication with the Rhine he would 
induce them to give up the idea of advancing on Paris. 
This scheme was found out by the allies. Fortune had thus 
thrown a great opportunity into their hands, and they did 
not let it escape them. A force of 10,000 men, under the 
Russian General Wmzingerode^ was left to deceive Buona- 
parte, while the armies of Schwartzenberg and Bliicher 
marched rapidly towards the capital. They arrived there 
on March 29 ; next day Paris surrendered ; and on the 31st 
the Emperor Alexander and King Frederick William entered 
the city at the head of their troops. Two months afterwards 
the First Peace of Paris was concluded between the allies 
and Lewis XVI I L of France, Buonaparte having in the 
meantime abdicated and been banished to Elba. By this 
treaty all the territory taken from Germany since 1792 was 
given back. No money indemnity was demanded ; and 
France was allowed to keep even the art treasures which 
had been stolen from Germany. 

12. The Congress of Vienna. Escape of Buonaparte from 
Elba. — The task now before the conquerors of Buonaparte 
was to bring back order to Germany. The great Congress 
of Vienna was opened on October i, 18 14. Besides the 
Emperors oi Austria and of Russia^ there were present the 
Kings of Prussia^ of Denmark^ of Bavaria^ and of Wiirtem- 
berg, most of the German Princes, and the representatives 
of the various German States and of all European Powers 
except Turkey. The Congress soon found that it would 



XVIII.] THE BATTLE OE WATERLOO, 217 

have to overcome great difficulties. Prussia wished to be 
rewarded for its sacrifices by the annexation of Saxony ; 
Russia asked the whole of Poland. The other Powers 
would not listen to these demands, and disputes ran so high 
that the peace of Europe seemed to be once more threa- 
tened. Suddenly, on March 7, 181 5, when a compromise 
was being arrived at, all were startled by the alarming 
news that Buonaparte had escaped from Elba, was gather- 
ing around him the military strength of P^rance, and 
preparing to begin another war. The subjects of dispute 
which had before seemed so important were at once for- 
gotten in the thought of the common danger. Buonaparte 
was declared an outlaw. A new coalition was formed by 
the Great Powers represented at Vienna ; and measures 
were taken for the raising of enormous armies. Germany 
prepared enthusiastically for her own defence. She was 
resolved that the present should be the last time Buona- 
parte should disturb Europe. 

13. The Battle of Waterloo. The second Peace of Paris. 
— When the campaign began, in June, 1 81 5, Prince Schwartz- 
enberg held the Lower and Middle Rhine, and the Duke of 
Welli7tgton had taken up his post in Holland ; Blilcher's 
headquarters were at Liege. The allies were not at first 
successful. On June 16 the Prussians were attacked near 
Ligny^ and defeated with great loss. Bliicher himself 
narrowly escaped being killed or made prisoner. On the 
same day an engagement took place at (2icatre Bras; but 
in this the French were unsuccessful. At Quatre Bras the 
Black Troop of Frederick William of Brunswick again dis- 
tinguished itself ; but Frederick William himself was killed. 
On' June 18 the great battle of Waterloo^ called by the 
Germans La Belle Alliance^ was fought. On the night 
before the battle Bliicher promised to come to the help 
of Wellington, and, although he had great difficulty in 



2i8 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. 



doing so, he kept nis word. For eight hours the English 
army defended itself with splendid bravery ; when Bliicher 
came up, Buonaparte knew that all was lost. The defeat 
of the French was complete. They were pursued so vigor- 
ously by the Prussians under Gneisenau^ and cut off in such 
vast numbers, that this single battle put an end to the war. 
Even Buonaparte felt that further resistance was impossible. 
On July 7 the alhes were once more in possession of Paris ; 
and on November 20 the Second Peace of Paris was signed. 
The German Powers wished to recover Elsass and Lorraine ; 
but they had to content themselves with the boundaries 
which existed before 1790, and which differed only slightly 
from those fixed by the First Peace. France undertook to 
pay an indemnity of 700 million francs, to be divided among 
the allies. She had also to restore the art treasures which 
Buonaparte had stolen. 

14. Changes of territory in Germany. — Whilst the armies 
of the allies carried on the war, the Congress of Vienna had 
continued its sittings. The renewal of the struggle made 
all parties more moderate, so that the deliberations of the 
Congress were brought to an end in June. Besides her 
former Italian and Illyrian possessions, Austria received 
Tyrol, Salzburg, Vorarlberg, and the l7mvierteL Prussia 
obtained all that she gave up in the Treaty of Tilsit, 
and the Grand Duchy of Posen, Swedish Po77ierania, the 
northern part of Saxony, the Duchies of Westphalia and 
Berg, and the Rhine country between Mainz and Aachen. 
Bavaria kept Aiisbach and Bairetcth^ and, in return for terri- 
tory ceded to Austria, received Wiirzburg ^LXidi Aschaffenburg^ 
together with the Upper T^henish Palatinate, thenceforth 
known as Rhe7iish Bavaria. Hanover also received some 
new lands, and, as Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Saxony had 
already been, was made a Kingdom. The remaining 
German States kept very much the same boundaries as 



x\'iii.] THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 219 

• 
those they had possessed during the time of the Rhenish 
Confederation. 

15. The German Confederation. — The jealousies of Austria 
and Prussia, and the unwilHngness of Bavaria and Wiirtem- 
berg, did not permit that the Empire should be restored. The 
States of GeriTiany, therefore, joined in a great Confederatiojt, 
It was made up of thirty-nine States, taking in the free 
towns of Lilbeck^ Ha7nburg^ Bremen^ and Fraiikfiirt. Each 
State was to remain independent in matters affecting it" 
self alone, the object of the Confederation being merely the 
regulation of those affairs common to all German States 
equally. A permanent Diet, consisting of the plenipoten- 
tiaries of the States, was to hold its sittings in Frankfiirt-07t 
the-Maiiiy Xhe, representatives of Austria presiding. The 
members of the Confederation agreed never to declare w^ar 
against each other, or to form alliances with foreign powers 
which should in any way be hurtful to a German State. 
All subjects of dispute between the various States were to be 
referred for settlement to the Diet. Each State was to 
contribute, according to its population, to the Confederate 
army, whose commanders the Diet were to appoint. The 
fortresses of Luxemburg^ Landau., and Mainz were declared 
the property of the Confederation, and garrisoned by 
its troops. The act of Confederation decreed that con- 
stitutional government should be set up in each State, and 
that the members of all Christian sects should have equal 
civil and political rights. 

16. German Writers. — Although Germany was humbled 
beyond all past experience in her struggle with Buonaparte, 
her intellectual life was never so rich or comprehensive as 
at this time. The divisions which split up Germany kept 
down everything noble in her national history for some time 
after the peace of Westphalia. In the end they were not 
altogether unfavourable to literature, for, as politics and 



220 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. 

commerce did not afford the same outlet for the energies of 
the people as existed in free countries, above all in England, 
the hio-her class of minds turned aside and devoted them- 
selves wholly to thought and study. In the latter part of 
the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr vo7i Leibnitz had a European 
reputation as one of the deepest and most original thinkers 
of his time. It was characteristic oY the age that he 
did not write any of his many works in German. His 
philosophical system was further developed by Christian 
Freiherr von Wolf. By his " Kritik of Pure Reason," 
published in 1781, Immanitel Kant began a new epoch 
in philosophy. Fichte was also a distinguished philoso- 
pher ; and Schelling and Hegel had already made them- 
selves known as thinkers. Fichte was one of the noble 
band who not only roused the nation to resist the French, 
but themselves marched against the enemy. Hegel put 
the last touches to his first great work in his quiet home 
in Jena as the artillery of the contending armies in the 
battle of Jena was thundering outside. Barthold Geo?'g 
Niebtihr was one of a number of writers who were at 
this time writing history according to a wholly new method 
Among the scholars who had given a powerful impulse to 
learning v/ere Winckehnann and Lleyne. In the latter part 
of the seventeenth century, German poetry held a very low 
place. The so-called Second Silesian School had great 
i'ame ; but it was altogether without genius. A number of 
court poets wrote chiefly under French influence. A freer 
style was brought in at .the beginning of the eighteenth 
century by Von Hagedow, Von Haller^ a Swiss poet, who 
was also a man of science and a philosopher, and Gellcri^ 
whose works were read by all classes. The first of the great 
classical poets of Germany was Friedrich Gottlieb I<[lopstock 
wlio was far above his immediate predecessors in richness 



XVIII.] GERMAN WRITERS. 221 

of imagination and depth of feeling. His chief work is 
" The Messiah." Christoph Martin Wieland also takes a 
high place as a clear and versatile writer. He had the 
special merit of arousing some interest in literature among 
the higher classes of society. " Oberon," a poem, and 
^'Agathon" a prose romance, are usually thought the best 
of his many writings. A far greater writer than either 
Wieland or Klopstock was their contemporary, Gotthold 
Ephraim Lessing. He was the founder of scientific criti- 
cism, and gave to German prose a terseness, clearness, and 
strength it had never hitherto possessed. He was also 
distinguished as a dramatic poet. Among his works may " 
be named " Laokoon," " Emilia Galotti," and " Nathan the 
Wise." Another famous writer of this time was Johanii 
Gottfried von Herder^ who was at once a poet, a critic, and 
a philosopher. High above all these rose the illustrious 
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. He holds in German 
literature the place held by Shakespeare in English, and 
by Dante in Italian literature. Perhaps his greatest work 
is " Faust," Specially remarkable for perfect finish of style 
are " Torquato Tasso " and '^ Iphigenie." The poetry of 
common life was never more finely brought out than in 
" Hermann and Dorothea ;" and Goethe's lyrics are prob- 
ably the most beautiful of any written in modern times. 
His chief prose work is " Wilhelm Meister." Friedrich 
von Schiller is generally supposed to rank next to Goethe 
in the list of German poets. He is perhaps even more 
popular than Goethe, for it was he who first gave full 
expression to the awakening national life of Germany. His 
chief writings are dramatic ; and of these the best are 
" Wallenstein," "Maria Stuart," and "William Tell." His 
" Song of the Bell" is the most famous of his shorter pijeces. 
Jean Paul Friedrich Richter wrote an extremely difficult 
style ; but he is one of the greatest of German humourists. 



222 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [CH. xvni,] 

Of his many romances, " Titan," and ^' Flower, Fruit and 
Thorn Pieces/' are usually considered among the best. 
Of the poets who roused the enthusiasm of the nation in the 
war of freedom, the best known were Arndt and Korncr. 
The latter died fighting against the French. 

17. Music in Germany.' — Germany has long been distin- 
guished as a music-loving nation. No other country has 
had so many composers of the highest rank. Of those 
whom she produced in the eighteenth century the most 
distinguished were Sebastian Bachj Handel^ Haydn, and 
MozarU 



CHAPTER XIX, 

REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 

The demand for constitutional government (i) — the desire for unity; 
murder of Kotzebue; action of the Governments (2) — popidar 
risings in i8jo; riot in F7'ankfurt in i8jj (3) — Lewis /. of 
Bavaria; the Custo??zs Union (4) — death of Francis /. of 
Austria; tyranny of King Ernst August of Hanover (5) — death 
of Frederick William III. of Prussia; high expectations raised 
by Frederick William IV.; he summons a United Diet (6)^ 
religious movements in Pi'ussia {'j)^-effect of the French Revolu- 
tion of 1848 in the sjualler States (8) — the Revolution in Austria 
and Prussia (9) — the Provisional Parliaiftent in Frankfurt; 
recognised by the Diet; rebellion in Upper Baden (10) — the 
N^ational Assembly in Frajikfurt (i i) — action of Christian VIII. 
of Denmark with regard to Schleswig-Holstein ; Frederick VII. 
adopts the same course; a provisional Governi7ient set up in the 
Duchies; th£ Fra^tkfurt Assembly supports them; war with 
Denmark; an armistice concluded by Prussia^ and ratified^ after 
some delay, by tJie Frankfui't Asse?nbly ; riot i7t F7'ankfurt, a7id 
attempted Revolution in Upper Bade7t (12) — the P7'ussia7t 
Asse77ibly ; a new Pa7'iiame7tt su7nmo7ied (13) — the Austrian 
Diet; Revolutio7is i7i Hu7igary and i7i Vie7ina; the F77ipe7'or 
Fe7'di7iand abdicates, a7id is succeeded by Fra7icis Joseph (14) — 
disse7isions i7z the Frankfurt Asse77ibly as to the 7-elatio7i of 
Austria to Ge7'77ia7iy ; the l77iperial title offered to the Ki7ig of 
Prussia, a7id 7'efused (15) — the National A sse77ibly re77ioves to 
Stuttgart, atid is dispersed by the Ki7ig of Wiirte77iberg ( r6) — 
disturba7iccs in Saxony, ^R/ienish Bavaria, a7id Badeti (17) — ■ 



224 RE VOLUriONAR V MO VEMENTS. [chap. 

the Revolution in Hungary ; ended by the surrender of Gorgey ( i8) 
— Coitstitutio7tal Government set up in Prussia (19) — the Ger- 
man Union; Parliament of the Union in Erfurt; Austria tries 
to reconstitute the Confederation (20) — dispute betzveen the Elector 
of Hessen Cassel attd the Chambers; Austria and Prussia 
inte7fere; civil war avoided (21) — the Frankfurt Diet restored 
(22) — the war with Denmark; Prussia makes peace; defeat of 
the Schleswig-Holstein army (23) — treaty of Commerce betiveen 
Prussia and Austria (24). 

1. The demand for free government. — The Act of 

Confederation promised that constitutional government 
should be set up in the various States of Germany, The 
people had made so many sacrifices in the great struggle 
with Buonaparte that those who disliked the old despotic 
system felt they had a right to insist that this promise 
should be kept. The princes, however, soon forgot what 
they owed to their subjects. Between 181 5 and 1830 
constitutions were granted by Sachsen-Weimar, Baden, 
Bavaria, WUrtemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt, and other small 
States ; but in reality very little change was made in the 
government of these countries. Frederick William III. of 
Prussia seemed at first inclined to yield to the demand for 
popular representation ; but he contented himself with 
setting up a number of Provincial Diets. Prince Metternlch^ 
the ruling spirit of the Austrian Government, was a resolute 
enemy of the constitutional system. 

2. The desire for Unity. — The feeling of national life, 
which had never been very strong after the Great Inter- 
regnum, and which almost died out duriiTg the Thirty 
Years' War, had for some time been growing up again. 
The famous deeds of Frederick the Great had made the 
people once more proud of the common German name ; 
and this feeling had been strengthened by the war of free- 
dom, and by the achievements of Germans in science, 



XIX.] THE DESIRE FOR UNITY. 225 

literature, and art. There was now, therefore, a very- 
general desire that Germany should cease to be a mere 
collection of States only nominally united. Few were 
quite satisfied with the Confederation. It left each State 
practically independent, and every one knew that in a short 
time it would lose any little power it had ever had. The 
general discontent showed itself most at the Univer- 
sities. A large party among the professors and students 
constantly contrasted the disunion and weakness of Ger- 
many in their day with its power and fame when the Empire 
was at its highest in the Middle Ages ; others, knowing 
that the old state of things could never be brought back, 
wished for some form of union more suited to the wants of 
their own time. The Governments of the various States for 
the most part disliked this movement in favour of unity. 
Kotzebue^ a well-known writer of plays, ridiculed those who 
wasted time in what he thought idle dreams, and was so 
much disliked that at last, in 18 19, a young student mur- 
dered him. The Governments believed, or pretended to 
believe, that this was the result of a widespread conspiracy, 
and resolved to take severe measures. A conference of 
ministers was held at Carlsbad to consider the whole matter. 
Many young men were thrown into prison ; various pro- 
fessors — among them, Ar7idt^ whose songs had done much 
to keep up the national enthusiasm in the late war — were 
deprived of their offices ; and strict limits were put to the 
freedom of the press and the Universities. The Confederate 
Diet accepted the decisions of the Conference, and ap- 
pointed a Commission to fmd out and punish revolutionists. 
The desire for unity, however, instead of being crushed, 
became stronger and stronger. The wish for free govern- 
ment also became more common. The great question that 
arose in many minds was whether the nation should try to 
obtain unity before freedom, or freedom before unity. A11 

P 



226 REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. [chap. 

knew that if either were gained the other would soon 
follow. 

3. Popular risings in 1830. Riot at Frankfurt in 1833. — 
The French Revolution in 1830 caused great commotion in 
Germany. In Prussia and Austria there was little disturbance 
of the peace ; but in several of the smaller States there were 
popular risings. In Bru7iswick the palace of the Duke, 
who w^as greatly disliked, was burned to the ground ; and 
he himself had some difficulty in escaping. His brother, 
who succeeded him, granted the required constitution. 
Constitutions more or less liberal were also conceded by the 
Governments of Saxony, Hessen-Cassel, Sachsen-Altenburg, 
and Hanover. On April 3, 1833, a riot took place at 
Frankfurt. A number of armed men, chiefly students and 
journalists, attacked the town guard, and freed a few 
political prisoners. They would also have dispersed the 
Diet ; but they were themselves attacked and overcome by 
the troops. This paltry disturbance was made an excuse 
for still more harsh measures against the Universities and 
the press. 

4, Lewis I. of Bavaria. The Customs Union. — The 
King of Bavaria at this time was Lewis L He succeeded 
his father, Maxiinilian^ in 1825. Lewis was a man of 
culture and artistic taste. He brought the University of 
Landshui to Mu?tich, and spent large sums in extending 
and beautifying his capital. He was so liberal a patron of 
art that artists came from all parts of Germany to Munich. 
Soon after he became King he made a treaty with Wiirtem- 
berg, regulating the customs of the two countries. This 
was the beginning of a movement of great importance to 
Germany. Prussia united with various North German 
States, and the Central States united among themselves, for 
the regulation of the customs. In 1828 the idea of a 
Customs Uiiioji^ which should take in all German States, 



XIX.] FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. 227 

was started ; and it scon gained ground. As Pioissia was 
evidently best fitted to form the centre for a movement of 
this kind, one Government after another concluded with it 
the necessary treaties. Thus was gradually formed the 
Customs Union, which was in the end joined by nearly all 
Germany. It removed many useless restrictions from 
commerce, and kept alive in the minds of the people the 
idea of that complete unity which many had so long wished 
in vain. It also added to the already great influence of 
Prussia in Germany. 

5. Death of Francis I. of Austria. King Ernst August of 
Hanover. — On March 2, 1835, Fraiicis /., the first Emperor 
of Austria, died. He was succeeded by his son, the weak- 
minded Terdinand^ under whom the policy of Austria 
continued very much the same, Prince Metternich still 
taking the leading place in the Government. By the death 
of William. IV. of E7igland^ in 1837, the Kingdom of 
Hanover passed to Ernst August^ William's brother. The 
new King was harsh and violent. He withdrew the con- 
stitution granted in 1833, and set up in its place another 
far less free, which had been conceded at a former time. 
Seven distinguished professors of Gottingen — amongst them 
the brothers Grimm — who protested against this tyranny, 
were dismissed from their offices. A revolt which resulted 
among the students was not put down till some blood had 
been shed. 

6. Death of Frederick William III. of Prussia. Frederick 
William IV. — Frederick Wilham III. of Prussia, who had 
seen so many changes of fortune, died on June 7, 1840. Great 
hopes were raised by his son and successor, lyederick 
Williain IV. This king began his reign by granting a 
a pardon to all political prisoners, and spoke eloquently of 
the duties of a sovereign. At the ceremony which took 
place when the works for completing the cathedral of Koln 



228 RE VOL UTIONARY MO VEMENTS. [chap. 

were begun, he uttered words full of promise for the future 
unity of Germany. The expectations formed as to the reign 
of Frederick William IV. were not fulfilled. He was well- 
meaning, and certainly did a good deal for his subjects. 
Under him Berlin became a great centre for German science 
and learning. But he had no strength of character, and 
shared far too much those extravagant notions of the 
authority of Kings which have always hitherto marked the 
Prussian royal family. His subjects urged him to grant 
a constitutional system of government, reminding him of 
the early promises of his father. At last, in 1847, when 
entreated from all sides, he summoned to Berlin a United 
Diet. This was not a Parliament^ but a combination of 
the several Provincial Diets. It was opened on April 11. 
The King caused great dissatisfaction by declaring that 
nothing would induce him to concede a constitution, and 
thus to change the natural relation between a prince and 
his subjects. 

7. Religious movements in Prussia. — Various religious 
movements took place in the early years of Frederick 
William's reign. A considerable number, roused at first by 
the protest of a priest named Ronge against a piece of gross 
superstition sanctioned by Bishop Arnoldi of Trier ^ left the 
Roman Catholic Church, and formed communities to which 
they gave the name of Gerinan Catliolic Coinmtmities. The 
Protestant Church, which had been outwardly strengthened 
under Frederick William III. by the union of the Lutheran 
and Reformed Churches in 181 7, was also deeply moved by 
the action of a. party whose members called themselves the 
Friends of Light. Many of these left the Church, and 
formed F7'ee ConiniMnities. Both these and the German 
Catholic Communities became centres for political agitation. 

8. Effect of the French Revolution cf 1848 in the smaller 
States. — The year 1848 is a memorable one in German 



XIX.] THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. 229 

history. Dissatisfaction was deep and widespread. In all 
the leading States the people were urgently demanding 
freer forms of government, and the desire for the unity of 
Germany had become in many minds almost a passion. 
When the third French Revolution broke out, its iniluence 
was immediately felt in Germany. The popular movement 
this time was very different from any the Governments had 
hitherto had to contend with. The people were evidently 
in earnest, and resolved to obtain, at whatever cost, their 
chief demands. The princes of the smaller States were 
alarmed, and most of them, without loss of time, changed 
their IVIinistries, the new Ministry in each case frankly 
adopting a liberal policy. Lewis, King of Bavaria, had to 
resign his crov»m in favour of his son Maximilian j and 
the Grand Duke of Hessen Darmstadt associated his son 
with him in the government. 

9. The Revolution in Austria and Prussia. — The Revolu- 
tion was most serious in the two great German States, 
Prussia and Austria. In Vienna, a rising, headed by the 
students, was so successful, that on March 13, 1848, Prince 
Metternich was a fugitive on his way to England. After 
his departure the greatest confusion reigned in the capital. 
The revolutionary party everywhere gained the upper hand ; 
and the Emperor was obliged to summon a Diet, to .be 
elected by universal suffrage in all his hereditary lands. 
He no longer felt safe in Vienna, and went, with the 
Imperial household, to Innsbmck. In Berlin the Rc\olu- 
tion was even more violent. Excited meetings were he:d ; 
and on March 13 and the following days, there were sharp 
contests between the people and the soldiers. The King, 
who was not personally unpopular, hesitated for some time 
as to the course he should adopt, but on March \^ pro- 
mised to set up constitutional government. The people 
were excited, and demanded that the troops should be sent 



230 RE VOLUriONAR V MO VEMENTS. [chap. 

out of Berlin. On the i8th a crowd gathered before the 
palace to press the demand. Two shots were suddenly 
fired, from what quarter no one knew. A cry of treason 
was raised, and many took up arms. In the afternoon a 
fierce struggle began. The troops Avere attacked from 
behind barricades, and from the roofs and windoAvs of 
houses. The contest w^ent on till far in the night, and 
many were killed. Next day the King yielded the point in 
dispute. He declared that he placed himself "at the head 
of the movement," and Berlin was put under the protection 
of armed citizens. The Ministry was dismissed, and, after 
an electoral law had been passed by the United Diet, orders 
were issued for the election of a National Assembly. 

10. The Provisional Parliament in Frankfurt. — Mean- 
while, another great movement began elsewhere. It was 
generally hoped that union as well as freedom was now to 
be achieved by Germany ; but, as Prussia and Austria weie 
in too much disorder to do anything, about 500 Germans 
from the various States met at Frankfurt, and on March 21 
constituted themselves a provisional Parliament. An ex- 
treme party wished the Assembly to declare itself per- 
manent ; but to this the majority would not agree. It was 
decided that a National Assembly should be elected forth- 
with by the German people. The Confederate Diet, knoAv- 
ing that the provisional Parliament was approved by the 
nation, recognized its authority. Through the Diet the 
various Governments were communicated Avith, and all of 
them agreed to make arrangements for the elections. The 
discontented party in the provisional Parliament, wishing to 
establish a Republic, called the people to arms in Upper 
Baden ; but they Avere put doAvn by the troops of various 
South German States. 

11. The National Assembly in Frankfurt. — The National 
Assembly was opened in Frankfurt on May 18, 1848. It 



XIX.] WAR WITH DENMARK, 231 

elected the Archduke John of Atistria as the head of a new 
provisional central Government The choice was a happy one. 
The Archduke- was at once acknowledged by the different 
Governments, and on July 12 the President of the Con- 
federate Diet formally made over to him the authority which 
had hitherto belonged to the Diet. The Diet then ceased 
to exist. The Archduke chose from the Assembly seven 
members, who formed a responsible ministry. The Assem- 
bly was divided into two parties, the Right and the Left. 
These again were broken up into various sections. Much 
time was lost in useless discussions, and it was soon sus- 
pected that the Assembly would not in the end prove equal 
to the great task it had undertaken. 

12. War with Denmark. — While the Assembly was 
sitting, German troops carried on a foreign war. The 
Duchy of Holstein was subject to the Danish King, but it 
had always been a part of Germany, and in virtue of it the 
Danish King was a member of the German Confederation. 
Schleswig, although a large part of the population was Ger- 
man, did not belong to Germany. The people of Holstein 
and the Germans of Schleswig, however, maintained that, 
in virtue of a treaty of 1460, the two Duchies could not 
be separated, and that, when the male line of the Danish 
royal family should die out, the connexion of both with 
Denmark would come to an end. In spite of this, Christian 
VIII., King of Denmark, made a public declaration in 1846, 
that the Duchy of Schleswig and the greater part of Holstein 
must always remain a part of the Danish kingdom. The 
German party in the two Duchies was alarmed at this step, 
and the Holstein States appealed to tlie Confederate Diet. 
The latter passed a vague resolution, protecting the rights 
of the Duchies ; but the King oi Denmark rephed that he 
did not intend to violate these rights. The matter remained 
in this unsatisfactory slate till tiie death o: Christian VIII. 



232 RE VOL UTIONAR Y MO VEMENTS, [chap. 

in 1848. Frederick VII. ^ his son, declared himself strongly 
in favour of the Danish view of the case. The discontent 
of the German party increased, and a rising took place at 
the time of the general revolutionary movement throughout 
Germany. A provisional Government was set up in the 
Duchies. The King of Denmark sent troops to put down 
the rebellion ; but the Frankfurt Assembly sided with the 
Duchies, and an army, under the Prussian General Wrangel, 
went to uphold their cause. The Danes were driven out of 
Schleswig, and compelled to take refuge in their ships. On 
the other hand, the Danish fleet blockaded the German 
ports, and did much harm to German trade. The nation 
never so deeply regretted the want of a navy. Several 
ships were bought in England and America ; but it was 
soon felt that the war must be carried on under great dis- 
advantages, and on August 27 an armistice for seven months 
v/as concluded at Malmo. As one of the terms of the 
armistice was that a temporary Government, made up of two 
Prussian and two Danish representatives, should take the 
place of the provisonal Government set up by the Duchies, 
the National Assembly, which had authorized Prussia to 
open negotiations with Denmark, at first refused to approve 
what had been done. Great excitement followed. The 
Ministry, which approved the armistice, resigned. As no 
other could be formed, and as all felt that without Prussia 
the war could not go on, the majority of the Assembly at 
last, on September 16, agreed to ratify the armistice. The 
minority, consisting of the extreme Republicans, disapproved 
of this step, and urged the people to rise against an 
Assembly which had betrayed the German cause. On the 
1 8th barricades were raised in the streets of Frankfurt. 
The troops soon dispersed the rioters, but not till the mob 
had been guilty of a base deed. Two Prussian deputies, 
belonging to the Right, were icco^niiied as they reluined 



XIX.] THE PRUSSIAN NA TIONAL ASSEiUBL Y. 23.^ 

from a ride. Both were seized and murdered. From this 
time the various parties of the Assembly were greatly em- 
bittered, and the time which should have been spent in 
useful legislation was frittered av>'ay in paltry quarrels. A 
Revolution which was again attempted in Upper Baden had 
to be put down by force. 

13. The Prussian National Assembly. — The Assembly 
which had been summoned to meet in Berlin was opened in 
that city on May 22, 1848. The Radical party resisted 
ahxLOSt all proposals of the Government, and in this they 
were supported by large classes of the people, who tried to 
frighten the moderate members into submission by threats. 
At length,^ on November 9, the King adjourned the Assembly 
till the 27th, when it was told to meet in the town of Bran- 
denbtcrg^ v/here it might cari-y on its deliberations in peace. 
The members of the Right and Centre obeyed ; but the Left 
protested, and continued its sittings in Berlin. It even 
passed a resolution that Government had no right to levy 
taxes so long as the Assembly did not fulfil its functions in 
the capital. It was soon discovered that the Assembly 
could no more do anything in Brandenburg than in Berlin ; 
and after a few sittings it was broken up. A new Parlia- 
ment was summoned to meet on February 26, 1849, ^^ con- 
sider a constitution, the draft of which the King caused to 
be published on December 5, 1848. 

14. The Austrian Diet. The Revolution in Hungary and 
in Vienna. Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand. Francis 
Joseph. — The Austrian Empire was in a state of great con- 
fusion. The Diet was opened on July 22 in Vienna, but it 
was almost powerless. The members, representing many 
different nationalities, had no common aim ; it was with 
difficulty they could even understand each other. The 
Emperor came back from Innsbruck to Vienna on August 
12; but he had little influence. Of all the dangers which 



U 



234 RE. VOL UTIONAR V MO VEMENTS. [chap. 

threatened the Empire, the Hungarian difficulty was the 
greatest Headed by the well-known orator Kossuth, 
Hungary demanded complete independence. The Slavonic 
population joined the Imperial Government in resisting this 
demand, and Jellachich, Ban of Croatia^ with his wild 
hordes, tried to quell the Revolution. The Hungarians 
devoted themselves with much enthusiasm to the national 
cause. Unfortunately Count La^Jtberg^ the Imperial com- 
missaiy in Pesth, was murdered. The Emperor could 
not forgive this outrage, and on October 6 caused orders 
to be issued for the instant march of a part of the 
Vienna garrison against the Magyars. A numiber of the 
soldiers, sympathizing with the Revolutionary party, refused 
to move ; and they w^ere supported by many citizens and 
students. A violent contest took place, in which the loyal 
troops were beaten. A number of people rushed into the 
war office, seized Latour^ the Minister who had directed the 
troops to proceed against Hungary, and murdered him. 
The Emperor once more left the capital, and went to Olmiltz. 
The Diet continued to sit; but it could .do nothing. Vienna 
v/as in the hands of the Revolutionists, who proceeded with 
much activity to prepare against attack. Troops came to 
the help of the Emperor from all quarters, and on October 
21 the city was surrounded. It was not taken till the 30th, 
and then after a great deal of bloodshed. When at last 
Vienna was held by the Imperialists, they disarmed the 
people, and shot those leaders of the Revolution who did 
not escape by flight. The Diet had already been adjourned, 
and summoned to meet in Kreinsier on November 22. The 
Emperor Ferdinand, who was very delicate, feeling that 
in so stormy a time the duties of government ought to be 
undertaken by younger hands, abdicated on December i, 
1848, in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. The new 
Emperor was eighteen years of age. 



XIX.] AUSTRIA AND GERMANY. 235 



15. The relation of Austria to Germany. The Imperial 
title offered to the King; of Prussia, and refused. — A great 
deal of time was taken up in the Frankfurt Assembly with 
the discussion of the German land laws. When at last the 
constitution of the Confederation began to be seriously con- 
sidered, it was felt that the Assembly was in a much less 
favourable position than at first, for the Governments had 
got over their chief difficulties, and were not inclined to 
adopt any very thorough changes. The chief question that 
arose was as to the future relation of Austria to Germany. 
Every one wished Austria proper to form part of Ger- 
many ; but the Austrian Government insisted that the 
Empire as a whole should be admitted into the Con- 
federation. A powerful party, therefore, headed by Baron 
von G agent, president of the Assembly, urged that Austria 
should be altogether shut out from Germany. This was 
opposed not only by Austria and the Roman Catholic States 
which looked to Vienna for guidance, but by the so-called 
Great Geri7ian party, and by the Democrats, who did not 
wish Prussia to become the leading German State. Von 
Gagern tried to win over the latter party by agreeing to 
universal suffrage and other democratic elements in the new 
constitution. At last, in March, 1849, the Austrian Govern- 
ment formally demanded that the Empire should form part 
of the Confederation. It also proposed that a Directory 
should be appointed, made up of seven persons, the Austrian 
representative to be permanent president ; and that the 
Parliament elected by the people should be replaced by a 
States Assembly. Many who had before hesitated now 
joined Von Gagern's party. On March 27 a majority de- 
cided that a President should be appointed, in whose family 
the honour should be hereditary, and that he should, have 
the title of ^' Emperor of the Germans." Next day it was 
resolved to offer the Imperial title to the King of Prussia. 



236 RE VOL UTIONAR V A/0 VEMENTS. [chap. 



On April 3, a deputation v/aited on Frederick William to 
communicate to him the will of the Assembly. His reply 
was anxiously awaited throughout Germany. He answered 
that he could not accept the title offered to him without the 
consent of the German princes, and that the constitution 
would, not give him sufficient power to fulfil the duties of an 
Emperor. 

16. End of the National Assembly. — Notwithstanding 
the disappointment caused by the refusal of the King of 
Prussia to become Emperor, the Assembly tried to induce 
the German States to accept the new constitution. Some 
Governments did so ; but the more important States either 
hesitated or withheld their consent. Austria had already 
recalled her representatives from the Assembly. Her ex- 
ample was soon followed by Prussia, Hanover, and other 
States ; and on May 20 many of the most distinguished 
members voluntarily resigned their seats. On May 30 the 
Assembly changed the place of meeting to Stuttgart. But 
it had now become contemptible ; and on June 18 it was 
dispersed by the Wiirtemberg Government. Thus ended 
an Assembly, the opening of which had seemed to patriotic 
Germans like the dawning of a nev/ day for their country. 

17. Disturbances in Saxony, Rhenish Bavaria, and 
Baden. — Meanwhile there had been disturbances in various 
parts of Germany. The Saxon Diet, in which the demo- 
cratic party was strong, had demanded that the Government 
should accept the Frankfurt constitution. Instead of doing 
so, the Government dissolved the Diet on May 3. This 
gave rise to so fierce a struggle between the citizens of 
Dresden and the troops that the King and his Ministers had 
to take refuge in the fortress of Konigstein. The people 
made themselves masters of a large part of Dresden ; and 
even when the Prussians came to the help of the Saxon 
troops order was not restored for several days. I'here were 



XIX. ] THE HUNGARIAN RE VOL UJION, 237 

still more violent insurrections in Rhenish Bavaria and 
Baden. Provisional Governments were formed in both 
these countries ; and, like their brother of Saxony, the 
King of Bavaria and the Grand Duke of Baden had to 
appeal to Prussia for help. The Prussians soon subdued 
Rhenish Bavaria ; but in Baden they had more difficulty, 
as the troops of that country almost all joined the Revolu- 
tionists. Several engagements took place, in each of which 
the Prussians were victorious. By the fall of Rastatt^ on 
July 23, the struggle was brought to an end, and the Grand 
Duke, who had been obliged to fly, was able to return to 
Carlsruhe. The Prussians, however, did not return home 
for some time. 

18. The Revolution in Hungary. — Before the close ot 
1848, the Government of the Emperor Francis Joseph had 
restored all the German provinces of Austria to order ; and 
in the spring of 1849 the Italian provinces also had to 
submit. The rising in Hungary was more serious. The 
Austrian troops under Prince Wiiidischgratz were defeated 
in a series of battles, and driven back with great loss. 
Buda-Pesth fell into the hands of the insurgents. Many 
Germans and Poles joined the Hungarians, whose army 
rose to the number of about 200,000 men. I'he most 
prominent generals were Gorgey^ and the Poles Bern and 
Dembinsky. The Diet, believing the country to be now 
perfectly secure, met in Debreczin^ and formally declared 
Hungary independent of Austria. A provisional Govern- 
ment, with Kossuth at its head, was formed. The Imperial 
Government, unable to crush the Revolution, appealed to 
Russia for help. Russia, afraid that the rebellious spirit 
might spread into her own provinces, had already con- 
centrated troops on her frontiers, and gladly agreed to 
help Austria. Tov/ards the end of May, a Russian army 
entered Hungary. At the same time the Austrian aimy, 



238 REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, [chap. 



which had been greatly strengthened, invaded the country 
from the east, while a force, under Jellachich, attacked the 
Hungarians in the south. The Hungarians still fought 
bravely ; but they could not long hold out against such 
overwhelming numbers. Buda-Pesth was reconquered by 
the Austrians, and the Diet was driven even from Szegedi7i^ 
where it had taken refuge. On August ii, a council which 
Kossuth had summoned at yir^<^ appointed Gorgey dictator 
with unlimited power. Two days afterwards he surrendered 
with his army to the Russian general i?^V//^^r. This step 
was quite unexpected ; and Gorgey \ras everywhere accused 
of treachery. His surrender brought the war to a close. 
The leaders of the Revolution fled across the Turkish 
frontier ; and most of the fortresses which had not yet been 
taken at once capitulated. The civil population had 
suffered fearfully during the war ; but what was hardest to 
bear was the crushing of those hopes which all had 
cherished, and which had seemed so nearly accomplished. 

19. Constitutional government set up in Prussia. — The 
Prussian Parliament, which had been summoned to meet 
on February 26, 1849, was opened on that date. It con- 
sisted of two Chambers. No understrniing with the 
Government could be arrived at, so that on April 27 a 
dissolution again took place. A Parliament chosen accord- 
ing to a new electoral law met on August 7 ; and this time 
the deliberations were more successful. Concessions were 
made on both sides, and on February 6, 1850, the King 
took an oath to maintain the new constitution. From that 
time Prussia must be regarded as, at least nominally, a 
constitutional State. 

20. The German Union. The Erfurt Parliament. 
Austria tries to reconstitute the Confederation. — Mean- 
while the King of Prussia had been trying to unite 
Germany on a new basis. At his invitation the representa* 



XIX.] THE GERiMAN UNION. • 239 

tives of a number of States met in Berlin in May, 1849. 
Austria was at this time in the very heat of her great 
struggle with Hungary. Prussia seized the opportunity to 
propose that a Confederation of German States should be 
formed under her leadership, without Austria. On May 26, 
an alliance was concluded between Prussia, Hanover, and 
Saxony. This was afterwards called " The Alliance of the 
Three Kings." The new Confederation was joined by 
several of the smaller North German States. As the Con- 
federation did not embrace all Germany, it was called 
" the German Union.^' A Parliament of the Union was 
summoned to meet in Erfurt^ on April 20, 1850. Planover 
and Saxony, not approving of this step, refused to send 
representatives ; and the former State withdrew altogether 
from the alliance. Whilst the Erfurt Parliament sat, a 
Congress of the princes of the Union was opened in Berlin, 
on May 10. Austria had by this time begun to recover 
from the shock caused by the Hungarian Revolution. 
Alarmed by the attempt of Prussia to seize the place in 
Germany which she looked on as lawfully hers, and resolved 
to overturn the so-called Union, she had already, in con- 
junction with Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, called on all 
German States to send representatives to Frankfurt in 
order to reconstitute the Confederation. The summons 
was 'favourably responded to by Planovcr, Saxony, the two 
Hessens, and various other minor States. On the very day 
on which the Congress of princes who accepted the leader- 
ship of Prussia met in Berlin, the representatives of Austria 
and of the States which grouped themselves around her 
assembled in Frankfurt. Germany was thus openly divided 
into' two hostile factions. 

21. Civil War threatened. — The prevailing bitterness 
of feeling was greatly increased by a miserable quarrel, 
which as nearly as possible plunged the country into 3 



240 , REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, [chap. 

civil war. The Elector of Hessen Cassel^ with the help 
of his very unpopular minister Hasseiipflttg^ tried to 
obtain supplies without giving the Chambers time to 
deliberate on the budget. When the Chambers protested, 
they were dissolved on September 2 ; and an order was 
issued for the levying of all taxes as usual. This caused so 
great a commotion that the Elector was obliged to leave 
Cassel. The Frankfurt Diet, to which he appealed, sided 
with him ; and on November i Austrian and Bavarian 
troops entered his territory in order to enforce the Diet's 
decision. Prussia was prepared for this step ; and on 
November 2 the towns of Cassel and Fulda were held by 
her army. There was a powerful peace party in Berlin ; 
and its counsels so far prevailed that General Radowiiz^ the 
Minister of Foreign Affairs, had to resign his portfolio in 
favour of Von Ma^tteiiffel. But when Austria demanded 
that the Prussian troops should be withdrawn from 
Hessen-Cassel, the Prussian Government prepared for vrar. 
The question whether Prussia or Austria was to occupy the 
first place in Germany had been steadily becoming the 
leading question in German politics ; it appeared as if the 
moment had now come for its decision. But as all saw the 
frightful evils which, a civil war caused by such a question 
would bring upon the country, a last attempt was made to 
settle the present difficulty ; and it was successful. Prince 
Schwartzenberg^ the Austrian Minister, and Vojt Maii- 
teitffel^ the Prussian representative, met at Obniltz on 
November 28. They agreed that "free conferences" of all 
German princes should be held forthwith in order to arrange 
the constitution of Germany ; and that Prussia and Austria 
should together settle the affairs of Hessen-Cassel and 
those of Schleswig-Holstein. 

22. The Frankfurt Dint restored. — The so-called " free 
conferences" were opened in Dresden on December 23. 



XIX.] WAI^ WITH DENMARK, 241 

They led to nothing. But Prussia herself began to feel that, 
however unsatisfactoiy it might be in some respects, the 
constitution of 181 5 would be better than the present con- 
fusion. She therefore formally recognized the Diet which 
Austria had assembled at Frankfurt, and her example was 
followed by the other members of the Union. From June 
12, 1851. the Diet continued to sit as it had done before 
1848. So far as appearances went, the Revolution had 
effected no change in the affairs of Germany. But this was 
not really the case. It had brought into prominence the 
great question as to the relative position of Austria and 
Prussia in Germany ; and it made obvious to those who 
could look beneath the surface in favour of which side that 
question must in the end be settled. 

23. The War with Denmark. — On the expiry of the 
armistice of Malmo in March, 1849, the war with Denmark 
had begun again. The Germans were at first successful. 
Two Danish ships of war, the " Christian VIII." and the 
^' Gefion," being unable to leave the harbour of Eckerjifjorde, 
were so vigorously fired upon from the shore that the former 
was blo^vn up and the latter surrendered. The Diippel 
entrenchments were stormed by the Bavarians and Saxons ; 
and the Schleswig-Holstein corps, under the Prussian 
General Bonm^ took Koldiiig^ and pushed on to the 
fortress of Fridericia. Here, on July 5 and 6, the troops of 
Schleswig-Holstein suffered a decided defeat. On July 10 
an armistice was signed, in which Schleswig was provision- 
ally separated from Holstein. An understanding could not 
be arrived at ; but, as Denmark was supported by the Great 
Powers, the circumstances of Germany made it impossible 
for her to carry on the Vvar. On July 2, 1850, Prvissia con- 
cluded peace ; and the other German Governments were 
obliged to acquiesce. The people of Schleswig-Holstein 
refused to submit to the demands of Denmark, and 

Q 



242 RE VOL UTIONAR V MO VEMENTS, [CH. xix.] 

continued the war ; but on July 25 their army was com- 
pletely routed by the Danes at Idstedt^ and compelled to 
return to the frontiers of Holstein. By the interference of 
Austrian troops, Prussia consenting, in 1851, peace Avas 
restored, the government of Schleswig-Holstein being 
resumed by the King of Denmark. By a protocol signed 
in London in 1852 by the Great Powers, the King of 
Denmark was guaranteed in his possession of the Duchies ; 
and the succession for them as well as for the Danish 
kingdom was settled on the Glilckshirg line. But neither 
the States of the Duchies nor the Diet accepted the London 
protocol, so that the settlement remained incomplete. 

24. Treaty of commerce between Prussia and Austria. — 
In 1 85 1 it appeared as if the Customs Union were about to 
fall to pieces, in which case the Southern States would have 
united themselves in commercial matters to Austria, and 
the Northern for the most part to Prussia. This difficulty 
was got over by a treaty of commerce concluded between 
Prussia and Austria on February 18, 1853, 



CHAPTER XX. 

RECENT EVENTS. 

The war of Austria with Sardinia and France; the pai'iial union 
of Italy makes Germans desire the nnity of Germany (i) — death 
of Fj'ederick William IV. of Pi'ussia ; Willia??i I. ; dispute of 
the Prussian Government with the House of Representatives as to 
the army ; Voii Bisma7xk made Prime Minister (2) — unsatis- 
factory relations of Austria and Pj'ussia (3) — disputes ivith 
respect to Schleswig-Holstein (4) — Prussia ajid Austria make war 
on Dem?ia7'k ; Doimark gives up the Duchies (5) — the Duchies 
give rise to misundersta7idings between Pi^ussia and Austria ; the 
Convention of Gastein (6) — further disputes betiueen Prussia and 
Austria ; the two Po^uers prepare for war ; P^'ussia concludes an 
alliance with Italy (7) — Count Bismarck proposes to reconstitute 
the Confederation (8) — the Prussian people opposed to war ; 
attempt of the neutral Powers to maintain peace (9) — outbreak 
of war (10) — real causes of the war ; advantages of Prussia (11) 
— the Prussians overrun Hessen-Cassel, Saxony ^ and Hanover 
(12) — the Prussians cross the Bohemian frontier (13) — battle of 
Koniggrdtz (14) — Prussian successes (15) — tJie Peace of Prague ; 
Austria shut out from Germany ; secret alliance between Prussia 
afid the South German States (16) — annexations to Prussian 
territory ; King William a7id Parliament 7^ecojiciled (l'])~for- 
mation of the No7'th Gcrmaii Confede7'atio}t (18) — p7'ance shows 
jealousy of P7'ussia ; attonpts to buy Luxe7nburg ; P7'ussia 
protests; war prevented by a Co7ifere7ice (19) — constitution oj' the 
Confederatio7i ; the Gusto 771s Pa7'lia77ient ; obstacles to ■ the^ full 
union of Gertnany (20) — Leopold^ prince of J loJienzoller^iy beco77ies 



244 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

a candidate fof the Spanish crmvn ; opposition of France ; de- 
claration of war against Germany (21) — the South Gerjnan 
States remain ti'ue to Prussia ; real causes of the war {22)— frst 
victories of the Gei'fnans (23) — Further victories ; battle of Sedan; 
surrender of Napoleon (24) — siege of Paris (25) — surre^ider op 
Strassburg and Metz ; further French disasters (26) — The North 
German Confederatioii becomes a German Confederation ; King 
William of Prussia is made Emperor in Ger77iany (27) — Peace 
of Frankfurt {2%)^feeling of the Germajts as to the war (29) — 
constitution of the Empire (30) — variety of national life in Ger- 
many (31) — scientific and literary writers in Gerrna^iy (32) — 
German artists (33). 

I. The Italian War of 1856. Effect of the partial union 
of Italy upon Germany. — The years which followed the 
revolutionary period begun in 1848 were on the whole 
prosperous. Commerce flourished, and much was done 
to promote popular education. In 1859 a war broke out 
between Austria on the one hand, and Sardinia and France 
on the other. Austria tried to drag the Confederation into 
the struggle ; and many of the smaller States would willingly 
have supported her. But Prussia, though she mobilized 
parts of her army, adhered to the principle that the Con- 
federation had no right to enter upon any war which did 
not directly bear upon German interests. By this war 
Austria lost Lombardy. The partial union of Italy under 
Victor Einma7iuel gave a fresh impulse in many German 
minds to the desire for unity. Those who wished the 
different States to be joined more closely were still divided 
into two parties. The National Union thought Prussia 
should be placed at the head of the Fatherland, the 
Austrian Empire being altogether shut out from Germany. 
The Great Gennadi party insisted that no arrangement 
could be satisfactory which did not include among the Con- 
federate States Austria and the sister Duchies. 



XX.] CTTO VON BISMARCK, 245 

2. King William I. of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck- 
Scbonhausen. — King Frederick William IV. of Prussia died 
on January 2, r86i. He was succeeded by his brother, 
Freder^ick William Lewis^ who had already, since October 
8, 1858, during the continued illness of the King, acted as 
Prince Regeiit. The new King ascended the throne as 
William I. He was crowned at Konigsberg on October 
18, 1 86 1, with great pomp. He was an enthusiastic soldier, 
and had long wished to see the Prussian army reorganized. 
His efforts to achieve this end led to disputes between 
the Government and the Representative Assembly. The 
latter refused to sanction the expenditure necessary for 
the required additions to the standing army, and even de- 
manded that the time for the military training of the male 
population should be reduced from three to two years. The 
deputies accurately represented the wish of the nation, as 
was proved by the result of two general elections in 1862 
and 1863. On October 8, 1862, the King appointed Otto 
von Bisinarck-Schd7ihause7t prime minister and minister of 
foreign affairs. Bismarck first appeared in public life as a 
member of the Prussian United Diet in 1847. In 1851 he 
was made Prussian representative at the Frankfurt Diet. 
There he carefully studied the Austrian policy, and main- 
tained firmly the rights of his country in the direction of 
German affairs. He was afterwards Prussian ambassador 
at the courts of St. Petersburg and Paris. In his new 
position Bismarck displayed great energy of character, with 
tendencies as despotic as possible, and an utter indifference 
to pubhc opinion. With his aid, and in direct violation of 
the constitution, the King carried out his scheme of army 
reform. 

3. Relations of Austria and Prussia. — Meanwhile the 
relations of Prussia to Austria and the German Con- 
federation were not satisfactory. Bismarck openly declared 



246 RECENT EVENTS [chap. 

in the Prussian Parliament that the German problem could 
be solved only by "blood and iron." In August, 1863, the 
Emperor Francis Joseph surprised Germany by summoning 
a Congress of princes to Frankfurt, with the view of forming 
a new German constitution. The scheme failed, on account 
of the refusal of Prussia to have anything to do with it. 
Prussia herself proposed that a Representative Assembly 
should work side by side with the Frankfurt Diet ; but 
Austria would not listen to this suggestion. 

4. The Schleswig-Holstein question. — The jealousies of 
the two rival States boded no good to Germany ; but for a 
time they w^ere forgotten in a question of absorbing interest 
to the whole country. On March 30, 1863, Frederick VI I. 
of Denmark raised anew the old subject of dispute, by 
issuing a decree that Schleswig should be separated from 
Holstein and Lauenburg, and fully incorporated with Den- 
mark. This was contrary to the fundamental law of the 
Duchies of 1460, and excited deep indignation through- 
out Germany. On October i the Confederate Diet re- 
solved on federal execution against the King of Denmark ; 
but, before it could be carried out, he unexpectedly died on 
November 16, 1863. His successor, Chrisiian IX. ^ con- 
firmed the decree of March 30. On the other hand, with 
the death of Frederick VII. the male line of the Danish 
royal family had died out ; and it was maintained in Ger- 
many that Christian IX. had no right whatever to the 
Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg. It was further main- 
tained that these Duchies were inseparable from Schles\ ig 
and that all three, therefore, must now pass to the neares: 
heir. The nearest heir was the Duke of Augusietibur^ ; 
but in 1852 he had formally resigned his right to the 
Duchies. His son Frederick, however, had in 1859 pro- 
tested against this step ; and he now, with the assent of thj 
Duke, come forward and asserted his claims. Other 



XX.] M^'AR WITH DENMARK, 247 

German princes put forth claims to the Duchy of Lau en- 
burg. 

5. Prussia and Austria make war on Denmark. Den- 
mark gives up the Duchies. — The Confederate Diet had not 
signed the London protocol, and was therefore at liberty to 
declare the Duchies vacant. On December 8, 1863, it 
resolved that they should be occupied by Confederate troops 
till the question of inheritance should be settled. Shortly 
afterwards an army of 12,000 men, consisting of Saxons and 
Hanoverians, entered Holstein. Meanwhile Austria and 
Prussia were unable to agree with the Diet as to the policy 
which ought to be pursued towards Schleswig, and an- 
nounced their intention to carry on the war with Denmark 
as independent Powers, altogether apart from the Con- 
federation. This decision met with great opposition from 
the German people. Both in Prussia and Austria the 
Chambers refused to grant supplies for the purpose of 
carrying on a war which was the affair of the Confederation 
alone. Nevertheless the two Governments persisted in 
their determination. The Austrian army was placed under 
General vo7i Gablenz; that of Prussia was commanded by 
Prince Frederick Charles^ King William's nephew ; while 
over both, as commander-in-chief, was the aged Field 
Marshal Wrangel. On February i, 1864, the united 
armies crossed the Eider, and attacked the Daiiewirk^ 
which the Danes deserted on the morning of February 6, 
falling back behind the strong Diippel entrenchments. 
After a siege which lasted three week, these were at last 
stormed with great bravery by the Prussian troops on April 
18, The fortress of Fridcricia^ which was besieged by the 
Austrians, was soon afterwards unexpectedly deserted by 
the Danes. An armistice till June 26 was then concluded ; 
and attempts were made, at a Conterence held in London, 
to bring about peace. But the Danes refused to concede 



248 RECENT EVENTS, [chap. 

anything, and on the expiry of the armistice the war was 
resumed. It was obvious, however, that Denmark, unsup- 
ported by any of the Great Powers, could not long continue 
a war against Austria and Prussia. Discouraged by several 
fresh reverses, she made proposals for peace ; and, on 
October 30, 1864, a treaty was signed, by which the King of 
Denmark resigned all his rights in the Duchies of Schles- 
wig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, in favour of the Emperor of 
Austria and the King of Prussia. 

6. Disputes between Austria and Prussia. The Conven- 
tion of Gastein. — The two Powers compelled the troops of 
the Confederation to withdraw from Holstein, and placed 
the Duchies in the meantime under civil commissioners 
appointed by both Governments. It soon became plain 
that their interests with respect to the Duchies violently 
conflicted. Prussia, guided by Bismarck, evidently wished 
in the end to annex the Duchies to her own territory. . 
Austria desired no increase of territory from the Duchies ; 
but she was resolved that Prussia should obtain none_, and 
favoured the claims of the Prince of Augustenburg, whose 
pretensions were of course decidedly opposed by Prussia. 
The dispute between the two Powers ran so high that in the 
summer of 1865 an interruption of their good relations, if 
not the outbreak of war, appeared almost unavoidable. The 
evil day was put off for a time by the Gastein Convention^ a 
treaty concluded on August 14 by Count von Blome, the 
Austrian plenipotentiary, and the Prussian Minister, Bis- 
marck ; and signed a few days afterwards by the Emperor 
Francis Joseph and King William. By this treaty the 
Austrian Emperor, in return for a money compensation, 
resigned all his rights in the Duchy of Lauenburg in favour 
of the King of Prussia ; and it wab decided that, till the 
question of inheritance should be settled, Schleswig should 
be placed under Prussian, and Holste.n under Austrian 



XX.] PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA. 249 

administration. The port of Kiel was in the meantime to 
be occupied by Prussia, though open to the fleets of both 
Powers. 

7. Further disputes between Prussia and Austria. Pre- 
parations for War. Alliance between Prussia and Italy. — 
The Prussians took possession of the Duchy of Lauenburgon 
September i. At the same time, the Government which had 
been set up by the two Powers in common was dissolved ; 
and General von Gablenz entered Kiel as the Austrian 
viceroy in Holstein, while Herr von Manteuffel began his 
duties in Flensburg as Prussian representative in Schleswig. 
But the difficulties between the two rival Powers were not 
lessened by this arrangement. It w^ould not have suited 
the designs of the Prussian Government if they had been. 
Whether or not Herr (now Count) von Bismarck, in inducing 
Austria to join Prussia in carrying on the Danish war apart 
from the Confederation, had foreseen the difficulties likely 
to arise on the conclusion of peace, and resolved to bring to 
an issue the question as to the position to be held in future 
in Germany by Prussia and Austria ; there can be no doubt 
he had now made up his mind to involve the two Powers in a 
great and decisive stioiggle. An occasion of quarrel soon 
arose. Herr von Manteuffel strictly forbade all agitation in 
Schleswig in favour of Prince Augustcnburg. On the other 
hand, Austria, which was no more willing now than formerly 
that the Duchies should come into the possession of Piussia, 
allowed the Prince's friends to promote his cause in Holstein 
as much as they chose. On January 26, 1866, Count Bis- 
marck addressed a formal protest to the Austrian Govern- 
ment against its policy in Holstein. The Austrian Minister, 
Count Mensdorff, replied, on February 7, by asserting that 
the Austrian policy must be maintained. It was now .very 
evident that war could not long be deferred. The fortresses 
in the Saxon and Silesian provinces of Prussia were put in 



250 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

a state of readiness, while Austria gave orders for the con- 
centration of troops in Bohemia. The minor States also 
began to arm. In March, Prussia greatly strengthened her 
position by entering into an alliance with Italy, in conse- 
quence of which the latter Power agreed to join Prussia in 
declaring war against Austria, while Prussia undertook not 
to conclude the war until the province of Venice had been 
conquered. 

8. Count Bismarck proposes to reconstitute the Con- 
federation. — In the midst of these preparations, and while 
Austria was doing her. utmost to excite the Confederation 
against Prussia, Count Bismarck came forward with a pro- 
posal for the reconstitution of the Confederation. His plan 
was that North Germany should, in military matters, be- 
come subject to Prussia, while Austria and Bavaria took the 
lead in South Germany. At the same time he proposed 
that there should be a Representative Assembly elected by 
the whole German people. The scheme came to nothing ; 
but by the latter suggestion Bismarck conciliated many 
Liberals. * 

9. Attempts to avert war. — The war which every day 
seemed to render more certain was far from being popular 
in Prussia. It was regarded as ^'a war of brothers ;" and 
many petitions were addressed to the King urging him even 
at the last moment to preserve peace. But the Prussian 
Government was not lightly to be turned from its puipcse. 
In the beginning of May orders were issued for the mo 
bilization of the entire army. Austria, on her side, brough': 
up troops from all parts of the Empire, and concentrated 
them in Bohemia and Moravia. For a moment there were 
hopes that the storm might even yet be turned aside, for the 
neutral Powers proposed that a Conference should be called 
in order to settle the questions which threatened the peace 
of Europe. But the proposal fell to the ground through the 



XX.] IVAJ^ BETWEEN PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA. 251 

obstinacy of Austria. Nothing then remained but the 
conflict for which all Germany was prepared. 

10. Outbreak of war. — The first open act of hostility 
took place in the Duchies which had nominally given rise to 
the dispute. On June 7, Herr von Manteuffel, the governor 
of Schleswig, entered Holstein, and compelled General von 
Gablenz to withdraw with his troops from the Duchy. 
Austria was indignant at this insult, and urged that it was 
the duty of the Confederation to resist with all its forces a 
Power which had thus violated an essential principle of the 

• Confederate constitution. INIost of the minor States sup- 
ported Austria, and on June 14 it was decided to mobilize 
the army of the Confederation, exclusive of the Prussian 
rontingent The Prussian plenipotentiary' in the Diet, by 
command of his Government, at once declared that Prussia 
no longer recognized the Diet as existing, and, having 
announced the scheme of a new constitution by which 
Austria was excluded from Germany, withdrew from the 
Assembly. 

11. Real causes of the war. — It cannot be too carefully 
remembered that the war now about to begin, and which 
proved one of the most rapid and decisive in history, had 
in reality very little to do with the petty question with 
which it was nominally associated. The dispute, with 
respect to the Duchies was the occasion, it was not the 
cause, of the war. The causes which really led to it had 
been in operation at least since the time of Frederick the 
Great. For centuries Austria had led Germany. From 
the moment when Prussia became strong enough to be 
r-jgarded as a rival of Austria, a struggle to settle the 
question as to which Power was permanently to guide the 
destinies of the Fatherland became inevitable. As we 
have seen, this question acquired great prominence during 
the brief revolutionary period of 1848-49. The time foi 



252 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

settling it had now come. Those who wished Germany to 
become great and progressive, even if they could not ap- 
prove of the violence with which Bismarck had hurried on 
the war, could not but desire that Prussia should be suc- 
cessful. No one acquainted with the condition of the two 
States doubted on which side victory would declare itself. 
Prussia was comparatively small ; but her population was 
very loyal, and united by a greater number of common 
aims than that of Austria ; and her army was perhaps the 
most intelligent and highly organized in Europe. The 
needle-gun also gave the Prussian troops a great advantage 
over those of Austria. The Prussian plan of campaign was 
drawn up by Von Moltke., the chief of the General Staff, 
and one of the greatest and most scientific generals of the 
present century. 

12. Hessen-Cassel, Saxony, and Hanover overrun by the 
Prussians. — Of the smaller North German States, Saxony, 
Hanover, Hessen-Cassel, and Nassau had declared for 
Austria. On June i6 General von Beyer entered Hessen- 
Cassel, and without opposition seized the capital, the Elector 
himself being taken prisoner. On the same day Prince 
Eyederick Charles and General Herwarth von Bittenfeld 
crossed the Saxon frontier, and in a few days made them- 
selves masters of the whole of Saxony, with the unimxportant 
exception of the fortress of Konigstein. The Saxon troops, 
accompanied by the King, and commianded by the Crcwn 
Prince, had gone to join the Austrians in Bohemia. Mean- 
while, General voji .\hijiteujj'el had with his troops left 
Holstein, and joined General von Falkir^icin near Hur- 
burg'vsx Hanover. King George hastily left his capita], and 
placed himself at the head of his army near C'ctlingen, He 
wished to join the Bavarians ; but as Hessen-Cassel was in 
possession of the Prussians, and as by marching to the 
south-east he would have to fight his way through Prussian 



XX.] BATTLE OF KONIGGRATZ. 253 

troops and the army of Cobtirg-Gotha, this was no easy 
task. The Prussian lines were drawn gradually closer and 
closer around the Hanoverians. On June 27 a body of 
Prussians were defeated at La7tgensalza. But this success 
was of no real service to King George. He was surrounded 
on all sides ; and the help which he expected from the 
Bavarians did not come. On June 29 he capitulated with 
his whole army. 

13. The Prussians cross the Bohemian frontier. — The 
northern army of Austria — so called to distinguish it from 
the army which carried on the war against Italy — occupied 
the country from the east of Austrian Silesia westwards to 
the neighbourhood of Prague. It was commanded by Field- 
Marshal Benedekj and numbered, taking in the Saxon army, 
about 280.000 men. The Prussian forces were divided into 
three armies. The first, made up of about 100,000 men, 
v/as stationed, under Prince Frederick Charles, in Lower 
Silesia. The Crown Prince commanded the second, which 
numbered about 116,000 men, and occupied Upper Silesia. 
The third, amounting to about 40,000 men, acted as the 
right wing of the first. It was under General von Bitten- 
feld, and was in possession of Saxony. When the way had 
been cleared by the occupation of Saxony, the three armies 
were ordered to cross the Bohemian frontier, and to un'te 
near Gitschin, This was done in the course of a few days. 
Prince Frederick Charles won an important victory near 
Gitschi7i ; and the left wing of the Crown Prince's army, 
under General vo7i Sieinmetz^ defeated the Austrians at 
Nachod and Skalitz. 

14. Battle of Kcniggratz. — The united army was joined 
on July 2 by King William, who assumed the supreme com- 
mand. Next day the great battle of Koniggrliiz was fouglit. 
Benedek had taken up a good position, protected in front 
by the Elbe and the Bisiriiz, on the right by the fortress of 



254 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

Josephstadt^ and on the left by that of Koniggrdtz. His 
head-quarters were on the heights overlooking the village of 
Sadowa, The battle began about seven o'clock in the 
morning. Prince Frederick Charles hoped to be supported 
by the Crown Prince ; but the army of the latter was 
stationed at some distance, and as rain had fallen heavily 
during the night, was hindered in its march by the state of 
the roads. The battle raged with great fury for some hours. 
Many glances were cast in the direction from which the 
Crown Prince was expected. At length his troops were 
seen in the distance ; and early in the afternoon his army 
was in the heat of the battle. The Austrians could not long 
resist the enemy thus reinforced. The Crown Prince broke 
through their right wing, General von Bittenfeld through 
their left ; and the centre retreated before Prince Frederick 
Charles. The retreat of the Austrians was at first orderly ; 
but, as they, were vigorously pursued, their ranks were, 
broken, and each saved himself by flight or as he best 
could. In this great battle, one of the most important in 
modern history, the Prussians lost about 10,000 men; but 
the Austrians lost about 20,000, besides 18,000 prisoners. 

15. Prussian successes. — After the battle of Koniggratz 
the Prussian arms were everywhere successful. On July 1 5 
another victory was gained at Tobiischau^ to the south of 
Olmiiiz. The Austrian army escaped into Flungary, pur- 
sued by Prince Frederick Charles ; while the second and 
third Prussian armies pushed on towards Vienna. In 
central Germany the success of the Prussians was equally 
decided. Setting out from Eisenach on July i, and march- 
ing towards the Main, General von Falkenstein drove the 
Confederate troops before him, and triumphantly entered 
Frankfurt on July 16. Two days before, the remnant of 
the Confederate Diet, feeling Frankfurt unsafe, had taken 
refuge in Augsburg. General von Falkenstein was ap- 



XX.] THE PEACE OF PRAGUE. 255 

pointed Governor-General of Bohemia; but his successor^ 
General von Manteuffel, conducted the campaign with 
equal skill and energy. 

16. The Peace of Prague.— Austria, feeling that the 
struggle had been practically decided at Koniggratz, had 
for some time been trying to obtain an armistice. The 
negotiations were at first unsuccessful ; but on July 26 the 
prehminaries of peace were agreed upon between the two 
countries, and the smaller States also hastened to come to 
terms. The Peace of Prague was signed on August 23. 
By this treaty Austria was for ever excluded from Germany. 
She undertook to pay forty millons of thalers as an in- 
demnity for the expenses of the war, in return for half of 
which sum she resigned all her rights in Schleswig-Holstein 
in favour of Prussia. Peace was also concluded with 
Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden before the end of August; 
with Hessen-Darmstadt in September; and with Saxony in 
October. Bavaria had to cede certain small strips of 
territory; and Hessen-Darmstadt, besides giving up the 
Landgraviate of Hessen-Hombiirg, had to yield the right of 
garrisoning Mainz. But, what was far more important, the 
two latter countries, together with Wiirtemberg and Baden, 
entered into a secret alliance with Prussia for the defence 
of Germany, by which they engaged to give the Prussian 
King the supreme command of their troops in time of 
war. 

17. Annexations to Prussian territory. King- William 
and Parliament. — Meanwhile, Prussia had annexed to her 
own territoiy Hanover, Hessen-Cassel, Nassau, 2.tv^ Frank- 
furt. King William returned to Berlin, amid the en- 
thusiasm of his subjects, on August 4. The newly-elected 
House of Representatives, dazzled by the successes of the 
army, willingly forgave the Government for the uncon- 
stitutional acts by which it had carried out its scheme oi 



256 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

military reform ; and a reconciliation took place which 
nothing has since seriously disturbed 

1 8. The North German Confederation.^ — The South Ger- 
man States remained independent ; but all States to the 
north of the Main, including the northern half of Hessen- 
Darmstadt, united to form a North German Confederation 
under the leadership of Prussia, the whole military system 
of the Confederation being placed under the control of that 
country. On February 24, 1867, the first Diet of the Con- 
federation met at BerHn, and began its deliberations on the 
constitution, 

19. France and Prussia. — Germany had scarcely emerged 
from its great national struggle when it was threatened by a 
new danger, France had been violently excited by the 
Prussian successes. Even before the preliminaries of peace 
were settled, she gave Prussia to understand that she would 
have to be ^^compensated" for the political changes to 
which these successes must give rise ; and early in August, 

1866, the French ambassador at Berlin formally demanded 
the cession of the left bank of the Rhine. But Prussia w^as 
firm, and even at the risk of a second war refused to yield 
to this demand The Emperor Napoleon, anxious not to 
be wholly bafPied, entered into negotiations with the King 
of Holland for the purchase of Ltixembiirg^ which had 
formerly belonged to the German Confederation. Prussia 
protested ; and for a time the quarrel seemed likely to end 
in war. While the dispute was going on. Count Bismarck 
suddenly surprised Europe by the publication, in March, 

1867, of the secret treaty between Prussia and the South 
German States. The danger was warded off for a time by 
a Conference held in London, through which Luxemburg 
was definitely separated from Germany, and formed into a 
neutral State, its neutrality being guaranteed by the Great 
Powers- 



XX.] THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 257 

20. Constitution of the Confederation. Customs Parlia- 
ment. Obstacles to full union. — The constitution of the 
North German Confederation was quickly settled, and came 
into force on July i, 1867. The affairs of the Confederation 
were to be regulated by a Diet elected by the North Ger- 
man people, and by a Federal Council made up of the 
representatives of the North German Governments. The 
King of Prussia was to be president of the Confederation. 
Although this constitution was a great advance on the old 
state of things, none looked on it as final. A great party — 
the so-called National- Liberal party — had already been 
formed, whose leading aim v>^as the union of South Ger- 
many with the Confederation. This party warmly sup- 
ported Count Bismarck both in the Confederate Diet and 
in the Prussian Parliament. A Customs Parliament, elected 
by the whole of Germany, met in Berlin in May, 1868 ; and 
Baden and Hessen-Darmstadt signed a convention by 
which their military system w^as placed upon the same 
footing as that of the Confederation. Baden would willingly 
have become a member of the Confederation ; but the 
other South .German States were opposed to union. In 
Wiirtemberg the Democratic party, in Bavaria the so-called 
Ultramontane party, were the chief foes of the National 
Liberals. The Democrats hated Prussia for its despotic 
tendencies, the Ultramontanes for its Protestantism. The 
opposition of these parties was so bitter that it seemed 
very doubtful whether the complete union of Germany 
could be achieved during the present generation. Sud- 
denly an event happened by which, amid the applause 
of the ^vhole Fatherland, the long wished-for goal was 
reached. 

21. France declares war against Prussia. — Early in July, 
1870, Leopold^ the hereditary Prince of Hohejizolleni^ at the 
request of the Spanish Government, and with the permis- 

R 



258 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

si on of King William of Pmssia as head of the Hohenzolleni 
family, became a candidate for the Spanish throne. The 
Emperor Napoleon, who had never heartily accepted the 
reconstitution of Germany, and who was anxious for an 
opportunity to establish his waning popularity in France, 
resolved to make Leopold's candidature the pretext for a 
war with Germany. A cry was raised in the French Legis- 
lative Assembly that a foreign Power was about to place 
one of its princes on the throne of Charles V. A section of 
the French people took up the cry, and called loudly for the 
submission of Germany to the wish of France. To take 
away all cause of dispute, the Prince of Hohenzollern 
formally resigned his candidature on July 12. Not content 
with this triumph. Napoleon insisted that the King of 
Prussia should give an assurance to France that the candi- 
dature of the Prince of Hohenzollern would not be renewed. 
M. Benedetti, the French ambassador, came on the 13th to 
E7?ts, where the King was staying, and on a public promen- 
ade urged this demand. King William not only refused to 
grant it, but declined to listen further to M. Benedetti on 
the subject. An official telegram from Ems informed the 
German Governments of this fact next day. War had now 
become certain ; and the King hurried towards Berlin. On 
the 15th he was met at the Brandenburg station by the 
Crown Prince, Counts vpn Bismarck, von Moltke, and von 
Roon, and informed of what had taken place that day in 
the French Legislative Assembly. All that was now wanting 
was the formal declaration of war. While still in Brandeii- 
burg, therefore, the King of Prussia gave orders for the 
mobilization of the North German army. Next day the 
Federal Council met, and expressed its hearty concurrenc:^ 
with the views of the Government; and on the 19th the 
Confederate Diet was opened by the King with a speech of 
great dignity and moderation. On the same day, the 



XX.] WAJ^ WITH FRANCE, 259. 

French declaration of war was received and communicated 
to the Assembly. 

22. The South German States remain true to Prussia. 
Real causes of the War. — Napoleon, misinformed as to the 
real state of Germany, had hoped that the South Germans, 
if they did not actually join France, would at least remain 
neutral. But, though in Bavaria and Wiirtemberg there 
were strong parties in favour of such a course, they were 
true to their engagements. On the i6th the King of 
Bavaria and the Grand Duke of Baden ordered the 
mobilization of their troops ; and next day the King of 
Wiirtemberg follow^ed their example. On the 20th the 
South German princes formally announced to the King 
of Prussia that their forces were at his disposal; and the 
Prussian Crown Prince at once left Berlin to take the 
command of the united army. Throughout all Germany 
the prospect of the war excited much enthusiasm. It 
must not be supposed that the miserable Hohenzollern 
dispute had really anything to do with the war. It was of 
even less importance than the Schleswig-Holstein quarrel 
had been in the x^ustro- Prussian war. In a few days the 
world almost forgot that the Prince of Hohenzollern had 
been a candidate for the Spanish throne. What France 
was really about to fight for was the maintenance of her 
supposed supremacy in Europe. Germany had taken up 
arms in her own defence, and perhaps she was not unwilling 
to engage in a struggle by which she might thoroughly 
humble a Power that had for centuries lost no opportunity 
of adding to her divisions, robbing her of her territory, and 
depriving her of her just pla.ce among the nations. 

23. First victories of the Germans. ^The German army, 
including the forces both of North and South Germany, 
numbered more than a million men. This vast force was 
under the supreme command o'f the King of Prussia, whose 



26o RE CENT E VENTS, [chap. 

chief adviser was again General von Moltke, head of the 
General Staff. It was divided into three armies, some part 
of each of which remained behind for the protection of the 
country. The first, under General von Steinmetz, was 
placed near T7'ier as the right wing ; the second, under 
Prince Frederick Charles^ assembled in Rhenish Bavaria; 
the third, consisting of the South German army and of three 
Prussian corps, and commanded by the Prussian Crown 
Priiice^ occupied the right bank of the Rhine from Man7i- 
hei7n to Rastatt. By the end of July these three armies 
were ready for action, and some skirmishing took place. 
But real fighting did not begin till next month. On August 4 
the third army began its march towards the Lauter, and 
the first battle was fought at Weiss enburg. The French 
were defeated, and the whole of the third army encamped 
on French soil. On the 6th a great victory was won by the 
same army at Worth over Marshal MacMaho7t. The loss 
on both sides was heavy ; but the defeat of the French was 
complete. They fled in such wild disorder that Mac- 
Mahon's corps was for some time hopelessly scattered. 
The Crown Prince at once began his march across the 
Vosges mountains, leaving the Baden division to besiege 
Strassburg. On the day of the battle of Worth a part of 
the first and second armies gained a brilliant victory near 
Saarbrilcken. The bravery with which the heights of 
Spicheren were stormed has rarely been equalled. After 
this battle the whole German army entered France. 

24. Further victories. Battle of Sadan. Surrender of 
Napoleon. — The three German armies now pressed on 
towards the Moselle. The scene of the great battles which 
were next fought, and which rapidly followed one another, 
was the country immediately in front of Metz. Marshal 
Bazaine, who had now assumed the supreme command of 
the French army, and who apparently wished to join Mac- 



XX.] BATTLE OF SEDAN. 261 

Mahon, began his march from Metz on the 14th ; but he 
was attacked by a portion of the first German army at 
Coiircelles, and ^driven back. Next day he again set out 
towards Verdiui. On the i6th the battle of Mais-la-Toin' 
or Vio7iville was fought. It continued from morning till 
night, and portions both of the first and second armies took 
part in it. The result was unfavourable to the French ; but 
on the 1 8th they wxre still more decidedly defeated at 
Gravelotte, and obliged to take refuge in Metz. That 
fortress was instantly surrounded by the first and second 
armies, the supreme command of both of which was given 
to Prince Frederick Charles. The Prussian Crown Prince 
had awaited at Nancy the issue of the battles before Metz. 
His orders now were to proceed against Marshal Mac- 
Mahon, who had reorganised and greatly strengthened his 
army at Chalons. To aid the Crown Prince in this dif^cult 
undertaking, a fourth army was formed from corps which 
had hitherto belonged to the second army. It w^as in 
the end placed under the Crown Prince of Saxony, and 
called the army of the Maes. The King of Prussia him- 
self assumed the supreme command of the armies of the 
two Crown Princes. Both were in full march westwards, 
and the Prussian Crown Prince had fixed his head-quarters 
at Lig7iy^ when the news came that Marshal MacMahon 
had left Chalons. It was soon discovered that he had been 
in Rheims^ and was marching towards Re the I. It was there- 
fore concluded that he was making for Metz, with the 
intention of operating with Marshal Bazaine against Prince 
Frederick Charles. The Germans at once turned to the 
right, and marched in pursuit of the enemy. MacMahon 
had concentrated his troops near Vouziers. On August 28 
he advanced towards the Maes in the direction of Bean- 
vioiit. Two days afterwards an important battle was fought 
near the latter place, the re'sult of which was tliat the 



262 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

French were driven towards Sedan., while the road leading 
to Metz was occupied by the Germans. MacMahon's great 
scheme was thus already baffled. The decisive battle ol 
the campaign was fought on September i. After severe 
fighting the French were driven from all sides into Sedan, 
which the Germans surrounded, and into which they were 
prepared to pour a destructive fire. Nothing remained for 
the French but to surrender. The Emperor Napoleon, who 
had for some time freely exposed himself on the battle-field, 
yielded his sword to King William ; and next day the two 
monarchs had an interview. The conditions of the capitula- 
tion were agreed upon by Count von Moltke and General 
Wimpffen, the latter having assumed the command of the 
French early on the previous day, when Marshal Mac- 
Mahon was disabled by a severe wound. All the troops in 
Sedan, amounting to 84,000 men, together with 50 generals 
and 5,000 other officers, yielded themselves prisoners of 
war, while the entire war material of the army became the 
property of the Germans. Those officers who passed their 
word of honour to take no future part- in the war were set 
free. The Emperor Napoleon received as his residence the 
Castle of Wilhehnshdhe, near Cassel. 

25. Paris besieged. — The tidings of the French Emperor's 
surrender caused much excitement in Germany. Many 
hoped that the war would now cease ; but this hope was 
soon shown to be groundless. The German people had 
made up their minds that the cession of Elsass and German 
Lorraine should be a condition of peace. The French 
Government of the National Defence, which displaced 
the Empire, at once declared that France would give 
Gennany any sum of money, but would not yield an inch of 
its territory or a stone of its fortresses. Germany, therefore, 
all but unanimously approved of the continuance of the war. 
Almost immediately after the battle of Sedan, the armies 



KX.} SIEGE OF PARIS, 263 

of the X^mi Crown Princes began their march towards Paris, 
On September 5 King Wilham entered Rheims, and in a 
fortnight afterwards the Germans were before Paris, the 
third army occupying the country to the south and south- 
east, the army of the Maes that to the north and north-east 
The Prussian Crown Prince fixed his head quarters in 
Versailles, where those of King William were also placed 
on October 5, Meanwhile two distinct efforts to break 
through the German lines had been made, one by General 
Ducrot on September 19, another by General Vtnoy on 
September 30 ; but both times the French were driven back. 
On October 13 and October 21 similar attempts were made, 
but wath a like result. The French were somewhat more 
successful on October 28, when they took possession of the 
village of Le Bourget, and began to mass troops there. 
Two days afterwards, after a brave defence, they had to 
retreat 

26. Surrender of Metz, Further French disasters. — 
Meanwhile, a new French army, called the army of the 
Loire, had been raised and had begun to operate with a- 
view to the relief of Paris ; and General Faidherbe had also 
formed an army in the north. But fresh disasters had be- 
fallen France. Strassburg had surrendered on September 
27 ; and on October 27 Marshal Bazaine, after having 
several times tried to escape from Metz, capitulated with 
his whole army, which consisted of 173,000 men, with 3 
marshals and 6000 officers. Metz itself was surrendered to 
the Germans. The troops which had so long surrounded 
Metz were then free to prosecute the war which had anew 
broken out on the field. The first army was placed under 
General von Manteuffel, and, with the exception of the 
troops left behind for the occupation of Metz and Lorraine, 
proceeded in a north-west direction, against Faidherbe. 
The greater part of the second army marched towards tne 



264 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. 

south, where Prince Frederick Charles was to assume the 
supreme command. On October 12 General von der Tann 
had taken possession of Orleans; but on November 8, his 
troops being enormously outnumbered by the army of the 
Loire, he retreated. Next day he was hotly attacked, and 
on the loth fell back upon Tours, He was joined by the 
Grand Duke of Mecklenburg, who was sent with troops 
from Paris to hold the French in check until the second 
army should come up. The Grand Duke gained some 
advantages before the arrival of Prince Frederick Charles ; 
but when the latter appeared, the army of the Loire, which 
had begun its march towards Paris, was driven back at all 
points, and on December 4, after severe fighting, Orleans 
was once more occupied by the Germans. The army of the 
Loire was then broken up into two great divisions, one 
under General Chansy, the other commanded by General 
Bourbaki. The former army was repeatedly defeated, and 
at length altogether scattered, by Prince Frederick Charles ; 
the latter marched towards the east, with a view to effect a 
diversion by the invasion of South Germany. In the north 
Faidherbe displayed great energy ; but he was twice de- 
feated in the neighbourhood of Amiens j he was overcome 
also at Bapaic77te and St. Quentin. A new German army, 
called the south army, was formed to oppose Bourbaki in 
the east, and placed under General von Manteuffel, who 
was succeeded in the north by General von Goeben. For 
a moment South Germany appeared in real danger from 
the advance of Bourbaki, for although he was pursued by 
General von Manteuffel, the latter was far in the rear. The 
danger was averted by the courage of General von Werder^ 
who, with the Baden division, had for some time been 
holding Generals Ca7nbriel and Garibaldi in check, and 
who now resolved, at whatever cost, to prevent the further 
advance of Bourbaki's army. For three days Bourbaki 



XX.] UNION OF GERMANY, 265 

strove, with his large army, at Hericoitrt^ to drive back 
Werder's small force ; but the Baden troops fought with 
such bravery that the French, on January 17, 1871, were 
themselves obliged to retreat in disorder. Bourbaki was 
displaced by General Clinchaiit j but the latter succeeded 
no better. Harassed on every side by General von Tvlan- 
teuffel, Chnchant crossed the Swiss frontier with his whole 
army, consisting of 84,000 men, on February i. 

27. Union of Germany. King William declared Emperor. 
— During the progress of the war the South Germans, proud 
of the common German name, began to feel how small 
'are the points of difference between themselves and their 
northern kinsfolk compared with those great interests by 
which all Germans are united. This feeling gave rise to 
a desire for a closer union with the Northern Confederation ; 
and in the middle of October, 1870, plenipotentiaries were 
sent from all the Southern States to Versailles for the 
purpose of bringing about the desired change. The result 
of the negotiations was that treaties were signed with Hessen 
and Baden on November 15 ; with Bavaria on November 
23 ; and with Wiirtemberg on November 25. By these 
treaties, which afterwards received the approval of the 
North Gemian Diet and the South German Parliaments, 
the Northern Confederation was changed into a German 
Confederation. This change was accompanied by another 
of great importance. On December 4 King Lewis 11. of 
.Bavaria proposed to the other German sovereigns, and to 
the Senates of the three free towns, that the President of 
the Confederation should receive the title of German 
Emperor. The proposal being agreed to, King William 
was, on January 18, 1871, in the hall of Mirrors in the 
palace of Versailles, in presence of a brilliant company of 
German princes and representatives of the army, solemnly 
proclaimed Emperor in Germany. 



266 RECENT E VENTS, [chap. 

28. Peace of Frankfurt. — On the following day — the very 

day on which Faidherbe was defeated at St. Ouentin — the 
French made a last attempt to escape from Paris ; but their 
plans were ill arranged, and they were driven back with 
heavy loss. The Government of the National Defence, 
feeling that further resistance was now impossible, opened, 
negotiations with a view to peace. On January 28, Paris 
formally surrendered ; and an armistice for three weeks was 
concluded, which, however, did not apply to the military 
operations in the eastern provinces. The preliminaries of 
peace were signed on February 26 by Count Bismarck and 
the South German plenipotentiaries on the one hand, and 
by MM. Thiers and Favre on the other. According to 
these, France ceded to the German Empire the province of 
Elsass (excluding Belfort) and German Lorraine (including 
Metz and Thionville) ; and undertook to pay 5,000 millions 
of francs as an indemnity for the expenses of the war. On. 
March i a portion of the German troops entered Paris and 
occupied a small part of it ; but two days afterwards they 
left it, the National Assembly at Bordeaux having already 
ratified the preliminaries of peace. The German and 
French plenipotentiaries, who met at Brussels on March 
27 for the purpose of concluding a treaty, could not come 
to an agreement on various points. The delay caused 
by the misunderstandings, and the troubled state o^ 
France, ga.e rise to an uneasy feeling in Germany. Count 
Bismarck, therefore, himself interfered, and on May 6 met 
M. Favre at Frankfurt. Here a treaty was formally 
signed on the loth ; and it was afterwards ratified by the 
German and French Governments. The treaty of Frankfurt 
differed only in details from the preliminaries which had 
before been concluded. The district round Belfort was 
yielded to the French ; but in return the latter ceded some 
additional territory in Lorraine. 



XX.] CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE. 267 

29. Feeling of the Germans as to the War. — The Ger- 
man people were displeased that France was allowed to 
keep Belfort ; but on the whole they regarded the results 
of the war with pride and pleasure. The ancient military 
fame of Germany had been more than maintained ; the 
Fatherland had beeh united ; and the national sentiment 
was gratified by the conquest of the long-lost provinces of 
Elsass and Lorraine, wdiich would henceforth form a de- 
fence against French attacks. The Austro-Prussian war 
had raised Prussia to the first place in Germany; the 
present war raised Germany to the first place in Europe. 

30. Constitution of the Empire. — The Emperor had left 
Versailles on March 7. Ten days afterwards he entered 
Berlin; and on March 21 the first Diet of the new Empire 
was opened. The first object of the Diet was to adapt the 
constitution to the altered circumstances of Germany. In 
less than a month this task was completed. Except that it 
is more extended in its application, the new constitution 
is essentially the same as that of the North German Con- 
federation. Including the three free towns, the Empire 
consists of twenty-five States. Each of these regulates its 
own affairs in so far as they do not affect those of other 
States, and is allowed to send and receive diplomatic re- 
presentatives. What concerns the whole country is left to 
the Imperial Government. In joining the Confederation, 
Bavaria and Wtirtemberg retained many important rights ; 
but the whole tendency of future events must be to limit 
the action of individual Governments, and to place greater 
power in the hands of the Imperial authorities. The duties 
of legislation rest with the Federal Council and the Diet ; 
the executive power is wielded by the Emperor. He has 
the right to declare war and to make peace, to form 
alliances and to conclude treaties. He is represented by 
the Imperial Chancellor^ whom he appoints, and who 



268 RE CENT E VENTS. [chap. 

presides in the Federal Council and guides the course of 
public business. The Imperial Chancellor is also the 
Minister for Foreign Affairs. 

31. Condition of Germany. — The German Empire must 
not be confounded with the Empire which ceased to exist 
in 1806. It is the restoration of the old German Kingdom 
rather than of the Holy Roman Empire. Some fear lest 
Prussia should become too powerful, and the various Ger- 
man States be moulded too much after one pattern. But 
influences remain to prevent such a result. All the States 
are united under one head for great national ends; but 
each has a certain individuality of its own, whose roots 
are in some cases to be found in the distant past. Bavaria, 
Wiirtemberg, Baden, Saxony, and the other minor States 
have each a history as distinct, although not so important, 
as that of Prussia. Unity, which patriots so long strove 
to win, has been obtained ; but it Avill always be unity in 
variety. 

32. Scientific and Literary Writers. — -During the present 
century Germany has maintained the high place in science, 
literature, and art which she had previously won for herself. 
No other country has an intellectual life so rich and many- 
sided. It would be impossible to give here the names of 
even the chief writers of recent times. In theology and 
Biblical criticism we find, among many other names, those 
oi S Meier Jitacher^ De Wette, Neaiider^ Ewald^ Baicr^ Zeller^ 
and Strauss. Hegel is generally regarded as the most 
illustrious German philosopher after Kant. He founded 
a powerful school, which is now split up into different 
parties. Schopenhauer^ Herbart^ and Beiieke also wrote 
well-known philosophical works. Every department of 
physical science has received new developments during 
the present century in Germany. In his ^'Kosmos, '' 
Alexander vo7t Humboldt presented a connected view of 



XX.] GERMAN WRITERS, 269 

the great forces of nature which, for width of knowledge 
and clearness of exposition, has never been surpassed. 
Ritter stands at the head of German geographers. Among 
the astronomers of Germany may be named Zacliy Enke 
and Gaicss. Oken made great discoveries in natural 
history. Milller^ Etebig, Helmholtz, Mayer, Bimsen, Kirch- 
hoff, Haeckel, are only a few out of many whose names are 
associated with scientific work of the highest order. The 
world may be said to owe the science of language to Ger- 
many. Among the greatest cultivators of this science may 
be named the brothers Grunjn, ^^pp, and Pott. Wolf^ 
K. O. Milller, Herma7i7t, Bockh, and Bekker are well 
known for their services to classical scholarship. Ranke, 
Schlosser, Leo, Gervimis, D-ihh7ianii, Hdusser, von Sybel, 
Moinmsen, Citrtius, Waltz, are among the most distin- 
guished German historians. In imaginative literature, the 
Roina7ttic School long held a leading place. Its greatest 
representatives were the brothers Schlegel, Tleck, and 
Harde7iberg (Nov alls). It conferred great benefits on 
Germany by opening to it the treasures of its own 
ancient literature. Somewhat different from the older 
members of the Romantic School, but cultivating a similar 
spirit, were the well known writers, Cha77ilsso, de la Motte 
Foicqtie', vo7i A7V1I771, Cle77ie7is B7'e7ita7io, and E7n7ie7njia7i7i. 
Plate7i was a classicist. Rilckert began his career as 
a national poet during the war of liberation ; but he after- 
wards chose a wide variety of subjects. UJila7id devoted 
himself chiefly to ballad and romantic poetry. Pro- 
bably the most brilliant poet since Goethe was Heifirlch 
Heme, the liveliest, wittiest, most sarcastic, and most un- 
scrupulous of all German Avriters. Around him a school 
was formed, called Yoii7ig Ger7na7iy, represented, amongst 
others, by Eaube and Gtitzkozv. A7iastaslus G7'il7i, Her- 
wegh, and Frelllgrath are poets more or less in sympathy 



270 RECENT EVENTS, [CH. xx.] 

with this school. In German as in Enghsh literature, 
novels have taken a very prominent place during the 
present century. Gutzkow, Auerbach^ Freytag^ Hackldnder^ 
Spielhage7i^ and Heyse are among the most successful recent 
novelists. 

33. German Artists. — German art is scarcely less rich in 
great names than German literature and science. In 
architecture the name of Schi7ikel is well known ; in 
sculpture, those of Rauch and Rieischelj in painting, those 
of Overbeck, Come litis and Kaulbach, The chief musical 
composers during the present century have been Beethoiien, 
Weber, Meyerbeer^ Schubert^ Mendelssohn-Bartholdy^ and 
SchMinann 



INDEX. 



Aachen, the favourite city of Charles 
the Great, 36 ; coronations to take 
place at, 105 ; treaties concluded 
at, 163, 177. 

Abderrhaman, 34. 

Aetius, 18, 19. 

Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, 63. 

Adelheid, Otto I. marries, 50. 

Adolf, King, 97. 

JEd\i\, the, II. 

Agilolfings, the, 24. 

Agnes, the regency of, 62. 

Albert I., 98. 

Albert II., 113. 

Albert the Bear, 73. 

Albert the Degenei-ate, 97. 

Alemanni, the, 17, 22, 23, 41. 

Alfonso, of Castile, elected King of 
the Romans, 94. 

Anastasius, 22. 

Anastasius Grtin, 209. 

Ancient Germany, character of, 3 ; 
tribes in, 3 ; groups of tribes in, 4 ; 
classes of men in, 5 ; villages and 
Hundreds in, 7 ; chiefs in, 7 ; the 
Comitatus in, 7 ; meet'ngs of the 
people in, 8 ; the army in, 9 ; re- 
ligion in, 9. 

Anhalt, Bernard of, 77 : Christian of, 

153- 
Arabs, defeat of the, by Charles 

Martel, 29. 
Archduke, the title of, confirmed to 
. the House of Austria, 114. 
Ariovistus, 11. 
Aristocracy, rise of a new Fraiikish, 

Armmius 13, 14. 

Army, the, in ancient Germany, 9 ; 
Germans in the Roman, 11 ; the 
Prussian, reorganized, 210, 211, 245. 



Amdt, 221, 225. 

Arnulf, Bishop of Metz, 28. 

Arnulf, King, 41 ; crowned Emperor, 

Astrology, believed in, 161. 

Attila, 19. 

Auerbach, 270. 

Auerstadt, battle of, 205. 

Augsburg, the Diet of, in 1530, 138 ; 

confession, the, 138 ; the religious 

peace of, 143. 
Augustus II., King of Poland, 167. 
Augustus III., King of Poland, 171, 

^73- 

Aulic Council, the, 120, 160;* 

Aurelius, Marcus, 15. 

Ausbtirger, 90. 

Austerlitz, battle of, 201. 

Austrasia, 24. 

Austria, the Mark of, 35 ; given to 
Leopold I., 54 ; made a duchy, 75 ; 
Styria united to, 87 ; falls to the 
house of Habsburg, 96 ; wars of, 
with France, 163-171 ; wars of, with 
Prussia, 175-188, 194-218 ; gain of, 
by first partition of Poland, 190; 
gain of, by second and third parti- 
tions of Poland, 196 ; the relation 
of, to Germany, 235 ; the Revolu- 
tion in, 1848-9, 229, 233, 234 ; dis- 
putes between, and Prussia, 248 ; 
prepares for war with Prussia, 249 ; 
war with Prussia, 251. 

Axel Oxenstiern, 156, 157. 



B. 



Babenberg, the house of, 54, 87. 

Bach, 222. 

Baden, Peace of, 170 ; the Margrave 
of, made an Elector, 200 ; insurrec- 
tion in, 237. 



272 



INDEX, 



Baner, General, 157. 

Basel, the council of, 113 ; treaty of, 
196. 

Batavians, the, 4, 14. 

Baur, 268. 

Bavaria, 18, 23, 24, 34, 37, 46, 48 ; 
taken from Henry the Lion, 77 ; 
made a kingdom, 201 ; becomes 
part of German Empire, 265. 

Bavarian succession, war of the, 121. 

Beethoven, 270. 

Bekker, 269. 

Benedek, Marshal, 253, 

Benedict XII., 100, 

Benefices, 25. 

Berengar, 50, 

Eerhchingen, Gotz von, 135. 

Berlin, first mentioned, 73 ; Buona- 
parte in, 206. 

Bernadotte, 212, 214. 

Bernard, Duke of Weimar, 157. 

Btr^ha, Henry IV. 's queen, 63. 

Bible, Luther's translation of, 134, 

.145- 

Bismarck-Schonhausen, 245, 248, 249, 
250, 257, 258, 266. 

Blenheim, battle of, 169. 

Bliicher, 206, 211, 213, 216, 217, 218. 

Bockh, 269. 

Boehm, Jacob, 160. 

Bohemia, wars of Charles the Great 
with, 36 ; the Duke of, made King, 
75 ; falls to the house of Luxem- 
burg, 98 ; the doctrines of Wycliffe 
in, 109 ; war in, no ; Sigmund re- 
ceives the crown of, no ; distur- 
bances in, 151; Frederick V. of the 
Palatinate chosen King of, 152 ; 
severely punished by Ferdinand 
II., 152. 

Boleslaw Chrobry, 54. 

Bonifice, Saint, 30. 

Bopp, 269. 

Bora, Catherine of, 134, 

Boso, Duke, 40. 

Brandenburg, given to Frederick, 
Count of Hohenzollern, in. 

Breitenfeld, battle of, 156. 

Bremen, the seat of an archbishop- 
rick, 40. 

Bructeri, the, 3. 

Bull, the Golden, 105. 

Bunsen, 269. 

Biiren, Frederick of, 6^. 

Burgrave, the, 56. 

Burgundians, the, 4, 16, 17. 

Burgundy, 24, ^^^ 61, 75, 84, 105, 
117, 



Csesar, Caius Julius, 11. 

Cambray, the League of, 120 ; Peace 
of, 133- 

Campo Formio, Peace of, 198. 

Canossa, humiliation of Henry IV, 
at, 67. 

Carinthia, 35 ; falls to the house of 
Austria, 106. 

Carlman, 29 30, 

Casimir IV., King of Poland, zx8. 

Castles, the building of, 55, 

Catherine II., of Russia, 187. 

Cerealis, 15. 

Chamisso, 209. 

Charles the Great, conquers the 
Saxons, 33 ; conquers the Lom- 
bards, 33 ; conquers part of Spain, 
34 ; deposes the Duke of Bavaria, 
34 ; conquers the Avars, 34 ; his 
government, 35 ; is crowned Roman 
Emperor, 36 ; the extent of his 
Empire, 36 ; his death, 37, 

Charles the Bald, 37, 38, 39, 40. 

Charles the Fat, the great Empire 
of, 40 ; deposed, 40. 

Charles IV., elected King, 102 : 
crowned Emperor, 105 ; crowned 
King of Burgundy, 105 ; grants 
the Golden Bull, 105 ; adds to his 
hereditary lands, 106 ; founds the 
University of Prague, 106 ; his 
death, io6„ 

Charles V., elected King of the 
Romans, 127 ; decides to uphold 
the Reformation, 131 ; holds the 
Diet of Worms, 1521, 132 ; his wars 
with Francis I. of France, 133 ; 
holds the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, 
138; condemns the Lutheran heresy, 
138 ; grants the Religious Peace of 
Niiri.barg, 139 ; his expeditior.s a- 
gainst Hayraddin Barbarossa^ 139 ; 
renewed wars with Francis I. of 
France, 139 ; defeats the Schmal- 
kaldic League, 141 ; proclaims the 
Interim, 141 ; has to fly from 
Maurice of Saxony, 143 ; signs the 
Treaty of Passau, 143 ; makes war 
on Henry II. of France, 143 ; 
abdicates, 144 ; his death, 144. 

Charles VL, ascends the throne, 170 ; 
his Pragmatic Sanction, 171 ; gives 
up Lorraine, 171. 

Charles VII., 176, 177, 

Charles the Bold, 116, 117. 

Charles, of Lorraine, 165, 176, 180. 



INDEX, 



273 



Chatti, the, 3 ; defeat of, by Drusus, 

12. 
Cherusci, the, 3. 
Chiefs in ancient Germany, 7. 
Childeric, King, 20. ~ 
Childeric III., dethroned, 30. 
Chlodio, King, 19. 
Cblodwig, King, 20 ; conquers Gaul, 

21 ; cau5.es of success of, 21 ; unites 

all Frankish tribes, 22 ; lands seized 

by, 22 ; successors of, 23. 
Christian IV., of Denmark, 153, 154. 
Church, power of the, 43, 56. 
Circles, Germany divided into, 122. 
Civilis Claudius, 14. 
Clemens Brentano, 26^. 
Closterseven, convention of, 181. 
Clothair I., 23. 
Code, the Salic, 17. 
Comitatus, the 7, 20. 
Conde, General, 157. 
Confederation, the Swabian, 118 ; the 

German, 219, 231, 241, 246, 250 ; 

the North German, 256, 257. 
Confederation of the Rhine, the, 202. 
Conrad I , 45. 
Conrad II., elected King, 59; his 

wise government, 59; becomes King 

of Burgundy, 59 ; his wars, 60 ; his 

Edict, 61 ; his death, 61. 
Conrad III., elected King, 73; war 

with Henry the Proud, 73 ; joins 

the second Crusade, 74. 
Conrad IV., 81, 82. 
Conrad, son-in-law of Otto I., 49, 50. 
Constance, wife of Henry VI., 78. 
Constantine, i8. 
Cor.stanz, the council of, 108. 
Cornelius, 270. 

Corvinus, Matthias, 115, 117. 
Counts, 20, 24. 
Crefeld, battle of, 182. 
Crespy, the peace of, 139. 
Crusade, the second, 74 ; the third, 

77- 
Cumberland, the Duke of, 181. 
Curtius, 269.^ 
Customs Union, the, 226. 
Customs Parliament, the, 257. 
Czaslau, battle of, 176. 



D. 



49 ; Otto II. and, 53 ; Frederick I. 

and, 75 ; becomes independent of 

German Kings, 84 ; wars with, 231, 

241, 247. 
De la Motte Fouque, 269. 
Dettingen, battle of, 177, 
Dessau, Leopold of, 170. 
De Wette, 268. 
Diet, the, 44 ; made up of three 

colleges, 125 ; made a permanent 

body, 160 ; its powerlessness, 160. 
Diets, provincial, 124. 
Donauwerth, battle of, 169. 
Donar, 9. 

Dresden, peace of, 177. 
Drusus, 12. 

Duchies, fall of the, 85. 
Dukes, 24 ; position of, as feudal 

lords, 42. 
Diirer, Albert, 145. 
Dutch, origin of word, 2 ; High and 

Low, 2. 



Eadgyth, or Edith, wife of Otto I., 

48. 
East Pomerania, ceded to the Elector 

of Brandenburg, 159. 
Ebroin, 28. 

Ecclesiastical Reservation, the, 144. 
Eidgenossen, the, 102, 109, 116, 121. 
Electors, the seven, 84. 
Electoral League, the first, loi. 
Elizabeth, St., of Hungary, 86. 
Elizabeth, of Russia, 187. 
Empire, connexion of Germany with 

the, 51, 83, 85 ; fall of the, 202. 
'* Emperor Elect," title of, taken by 

Maximilian I., 122. 
** Emperor of Austria," 203. 
England, alliance of Prussia with, 

179 ; alliance of, with Austria and 

Russia, 198, 200. 
Enke, 269. 
Eormennc, 16. 
Erfurt Parliament, the, 239. 
Ernst August, of Hanover, 227. 
Ernst, Duke, 60. 

Eugene, Prince, 168, 169, 170, ^i. 
Ewald, 268. 



Dahlmann, 269. 
Daun, Marshal, 180, 183, 186. 
Denmark, Charles the Great and, 36 % 
Henry I. and, 47 ; Otto I. and, 



Family, the, in ancient Germany, 6. 
Favre, M., 266. 



274 



INDEX, 



Fehrbellin, battle of, 164. 

Femgerichte, the, 91. 

Ferdinand I., founder of the Austrian 
branch of the House of Habsburg, 
133 ; becomes King of Bohemia and 
Hungary, 136; elected King of the 
Romans, 138 ; takes title of Em- 
peror without being crowned by the 
Pope, 147. 

Ferdinand II., becomes coadjutor to 
Matthias, 150 ; his policy, 150, 151 ; 
crowned Emperor, 152 ; obtains the 
support of the Catholic League, 
152 ; treats Bohemia with unex- 
ampled severity, 152 ; accepts the 
aid of Wallenstein, 154; issues the 
Edict of Restitution, 154 , dismisses 
Wallenstein, 155; appeals to him for 
help, 155 ; rewards his murderers, 

157 ; death of Ferdinand, 157. 
Ferdinand III., 157. 

Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, 227, 

234- 
Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, 194, 

205. 
Feudalism in Germany, 25, 42. 
Fink, surrender of, 185. 
Flemming, Paul, 161. 
Fleurus, battle of, 195. 
Fontenay, the battle of, 38. 
France, Burgundy and, 84, 117 ; 

Charles V. and, 133, 139, 143 ; 

gains by the Peace of Westphalia, 

158 ; wars with, 163-171, 176-177, 
179-188, 194-218, 257-266. 

Francia, East, 41. 

Francis I., 129, 133, 177. 

Francis II., 194 ; resigns the Imperial 
crown, 202. 

Francis I. of Austria, 227. 

Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 
234 ; summons Congress of princes, 
246. 

Frankfurt, election of Emperors at, 
105 ; riot at, in 1833, 226 ; the 
provisional Parliament in, 230 ; the 
National Assembly in, 230, 232, 
233, 235, 236 ; the Peace of, 266. 

Franks, the, 17, 18-24 J Dukes of the, 
29 ; separation of East and West, 41, 

Franz von Sickingen, 134. 

Frederick I. (Barbarossa), elected 
l^ing, 75 ; his expeditions to Italy, 

75 ; makes his vassal Kings do 
homage, 75 ; becomes King of Bur- 
gundy, 75 ; his home government, 

76 ; takes Bavaria from Henry the 
Lion, 76 ; divides Saxony, 77 ; 



joins the third Crusade, 77 ; his 
death, 77 ; legend regarding, 77, 

Frederick II., crowned King, 80 : 
his character, 80 ; absence of, from 
Germany, 80 ; rebellion of his son 
Henry, 80 ; marries Isabella, 81 ; 
sets up an Imperial Tribunal, 81 ; 
his struggle with the Papacy, 81 ; 
his death, 82. 

Frederick the Fair, 99, 

Irederick IIL, sides with the Pope 
against the Council of Basel and 
the princes, 113 ; concludes the 
Concordat of Vienna, 114 ; confirms 
to the house of Austria the title of 
Archduke, 114 ; fails to obtain the 
Bohemian and Hungarian crowns, 
115 ; difficulties with his Austrian 
subjects, 116 ; his relations to 
Charles the Bold, 117 ; driven from 
Austria by Matthias Corvinus, 117 ; 
his death, 118. 

Frederick I., of Prussia, 167, 173. 

Frederick IL, of Prussia, youth of, 
174 ; enters on the First Silesian 
war, 175 ; carries on the Second 
Silesian war, 177 ; acknowledges 
Francis I., 177; his life during 
years of peace, 178 ; concludes an 
alliance with England, 178 ; begins 
the Seven Years' War, 179 ; his 
victories and defeats, 179-188 ; his 
alliance with the Russians, 187 ; 
concludes the peace of Hubertus- 
burg, 189 ; his home government, 
189 ; takes part in the first parti- 
tion of Poland, 190 ; sides against 
Joseph II., 190 ; forms a League" 
to preserve the Imperial constitu- 
tion, 191 ; his death, 191. 

Frederick William I., of Prussia, 174. 

Frederick William II., of Prussia, 
191, 194, 204. 

Frederick William III., of Prussia, 
ascends the throne, 204 ; his army 
defeated at Jena, 205 ; appeals to 
the youth of Prussia, 211 ; con- 
cludes an alliance with the Emperor 
of Russia, 211 ; enters Leipzig, 215; 
sets up provincial Diets, 224 ; his 
death, 227. 

Frederick William IV., of Prussia, 
high expectations with regard to, 
228 ; summons a united Diet, 228' 
his conduct in the disturbances at 
Berlin, 230 ; refuses the title of 
Emperor, 256 ; sets up constitu- 
tional government, 238 ; forms the 



INDEX, 



275 



** German Union," 239 ; agrees to 
the restoration of the Diet, 241 ; his 
death, 245. 

Frederick V., of the Palatinate, be- 
comes King of Bohemia, 152 ; his 
army defeated, 152 ; his flight, 152. 

Frederick of the Rhenish Palatinate, 
war against, 115. 

Frederick, Elector of Saxony, 133. 

Freemen, in ancient Germany, 5 ; de- 
crease of numbers of, 42. 

Free towns, decay of, 163. 

Freiligrath, 269. 

French Revolution, the, 193, 

Freytig, 270. 

Friends of Light, 228. 

Frisians, the, 17, 29, 3a 



Gastein, Convention of, 248* 

Gaus, 7. 

Gauss, 269. 

Gefolge, the, 7, 20, 26. 

Gellert, 220. 

George I., of England, 167. 

George II., of England, 177. 

Gerbert, 54. 

Gerhardt, Paul, 161. 

German, origin of word, 2. 

Germans, relations of, to surrounding 

peoples, 2 ; High and Low, 2 ; 

character of, in ancient times, 5 ; 

classes of ancient, 5; conversion 

of, 30. 
German Catholics, 228. 
German Empire, constitution of the, 

267. 
Germanicus, 13. 
Gilds, 57, 89, 125. 
Ghibelins. 74. 
Gneisenau, 210. 
Goethe, 221. 

Gorgey, General, 237, 238. 
Goths, the, 4, 16, 18; the East, 16; 

the West, 16. 
Gothic architecture, 92. 
Granson, battle of, n6. 
Graudenz, Courbiere in, 206. 
Great German party, the, 235, 244. 
Great Elector, the, 163, 164. 
Gregor>^ VII., 65, 66. 
Grimm, the brothers, 227, 269. 
Gudrvm, 93. 
Gustavus Adolphus, comes to the aid 

of the Protestants, 155 ; defeats 

Tilly at Breitenfeld, 156 ; enters 



Munich in triumph, 156 ; tries to 
force Wallenstein to an engage- 
ment, 156 ; is killed, 156. 
Gutzkow, 269, 270. 

H. 

Habsburg, the Counts of, 87 ; the 
house of, receives Austria, 96 ; 
receives Carinthia, 106 ; receives 
Tyro', 106; Austrian and Spanish 
branches of the house of. 133; 
extinction of the male line of the 
house of, 171. 

Hacklander, 270. 

Haeckel, 269. 

Hamburg, burned by the Northmen, 
40. 

Handel, 222. 

Hanno, Archbishop of Koln, 62. 

Hanover, seized by Buonaparte, 200; 
overrun by the Prussians, 252 ; 
annexed to Prussia, 255. 

Hansa, the, 89, 125, 15^, 

Hans Sachs, 145. 

Harold Blue Tooth, 49. 

Haugwitz, 210. 

Hausser, 269. 

Haydn, 222. 

Hayraddin Barbarossa, 139. 

Hegel, 220, 268. 

Heidelberg, castle of, destroyed, 166. 

Heine, Heinrich, 269. 

Heliand, the, 44. 

Helmholtz, 269. 

Henry I., elected King, 46 ; defeats 
the Hungarians, 46 ; seizes Lothar- 
ingia, 47 ; builds towns, 47. 

Henry II., 54 ; his war with Boles- 
law Chrobry, 54 ; his kindness to 
the Church, 55. 

Henry III., increases the royal power, 
61 ; proclaims a General Peace, 61 ; 
defeats the Hungarians, 62 ; de- 
poses and creates Popes, 62 ; his 
death, 62. 

Henry IV. , his youth, 63 ; offends the 
Saxons, 63; his war with the Saxons, 
64 ; his quarrel with Gregory VIL, 
65; humbled by Gregory VIL, 

66 ; his war with Rudolf of Swabia, 

67 ; the Saxons submit to him, 6S ; 
rebellion of his sons, 68 ; his death, 
68. 

Henry V., struggle of, with the 
Papacy. 60 ; concludes the Con- 
cordat of Worms, 69 ; his difficulties 
in Germany, 69. 



276 



INDEX. 



Henry VI., his efforts to conquer 
Sicily, 78 ; Richard I. of England 
and, 78 ; tries to make the crown 
hereditary, 79. 

Henry Vll., elected King, 98; secures 
Bohemia for his son, 98 ; becomes 
Emperor, 99 ; his death, 99. 

Henry the Wrangler, 52. 

Henry the Proud, 70, 73. 

Henry the Lion, 73, 74, 76, 77. 

Henry Raspe, 82. 

Henry, Prince of Prussia, 187, 188. 

Henry H., of France, 142, 143. 

Henry VIII., of England, 120, 129. 

Herder, 221. 

Hermann Billung, 49. 

Hermann, 269, 

Herminones, the, 4, 18. 

Herstall, Pippin of, 28. 

Herwegh, 269. 

Herzog, the, 9. 

Hessen- Cassel, the Landgrave, of, 
made an Elector, 200 ; dispute be- 
tween Elector of, and Chambers, 
240 ; overrun by the Prussians, 252; 
annexed to Prussia, 255. 

Heyse, 270. 

Hoche, General, 195. 

Hochkirchen, battle of, 182. 

Hofer, 209. 

Hohenlinden, battle of, 199. 

Hohenzollern, the Coui is of, 87 ; the 
house of, receives Brandenburg, 
III. 

Holbein, Hans, 145. 

Holy League, the, 120. 

Horn, General, 157. 

Hroswitha, 57. 

Hubertusburg, Peace of, 188. 

Humanists, the, 126, 130. 

Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 210. 

Humboldt, Alexander von, 268. 

Hundreds, 7. 

Hungarians, wars of the, with Lewis 
the Child, 41 ; defeated by Henry 
I., 47 ; defeated by Otto I., 50 ; 
defeated by Henry III., 61. 

Hungary, shakes off allegiance to the 
German Kings, 84 ; Ferdinand I. 
becomes King of, 136 ; rebellion of, 
against Leopold I., 165; crown of, 
made hereditary, 166 ; revolt of, 
against Joseph II., 192 ; Revolu- 
tion in, 1848-9, 234, 237, 238. 

Huniades, John, 115. 

Huns, the, 16. 

Huss, John, 109, no. 

Hussite War, the, xia 



Immermann, 269. 

Imperial Chamber, the, 1x9. 

Ingaevones, the, 4, 18. 

Inheritance, laws of, 87. 

Innocent III., 79. 

Innocent IV., 81. 

Innocent X., 158. 

International Law, 160. 

Interim, the, 141. 

Interregnum, the, 94. 

Irminsul, destroyed, 33. 

Isabella, sister of Henry III. of Eng- 
land, 81. 

Istaevones, the, 4, 18. 

Italy, partial union of, 244 ; alliance 
between Prussia and, 250. 



James I., of England, 152, 153, 

Jemmappes, battle of, 194. 

Jena, battle of, 205. 

Jellachich, of Croatia, 25. 

Jerome, of Prague, no. 

Jesuits, the, 147. 

Jews, persecution of the, 105. 

Joanna, the Infanta, 119, 

John XXI I. , 100. 

John XXIII., 108, 109. 

John, King of Bohemia, 98. 

John, Elector of Saxony, 134, 138. 

John, Waiwode of Transsilvania, 136, 

John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, 
141. 

John, of Austria, elected head of 
the Provincial Central Government, 
231. 

Joseph I., 169, 170. 

Joseph II., elected Emperor, 189 ; 
his government of his hereditary 
dominions, 190, 191 ; failure of his 
schemes, 192 ; his death, 192. 

Jourdan, General, 195, 197, 198. 

Julian, 18, 19. 

Jiilich-Cleve, 149, 163. 



K. 



Kaiserslautern, 195, 196. 

Kant. 220. 

Karolingia, 38. 

Karolingian Empire, extent of the, 

under Charles the Great, 36 ; broken 

up, 40. 



INDEX. 



277 



Katzbach, battle of the, 213. 

Kaulbach, 270. 

Keith, Marshal, 182. 

Kelper, John, 160. - 

" King of the Romans," 55, 78, 94. 

** King of Germany," title of, taken 
by iMaximilian I., 122. 

Kings, in ancient Germany, 7 ; posi- 
tion of the feudal German, 43 ; re- 
venue of the German, 44 ; loss of 
power by the German, 70, 83, 145 ; 
the German, and their hereditary 
lands, 102 ; position of the German, 
in consequence of great hereditary 
possessions, 124. 

Kirchhoff, 269. 

Klopstock, 220. 

Knighthood, 88. 

Koln, cathedral of, 92, 227. 

Koniggratz, battle of, 253, 254. 

Konigsberg, founded, 83. 

Komer, 221. 

Kosciuszko, 196. 

Kotzebue, 225. 

Kranach, Lijcas, 145. 

Kunersdorf, battle of, z84# 



Ladislaus, son of Albert II., 1x5. 

Landsturm, the, 211. 

Landwehr, the Prussian, 211 ; the 
Austrian, 207. 

Landen, Pippin of, 28. 

Laube, 269. ' 

League, the Rhenish, 89 ; the Han- 
seatic, 89, 125, 158 ; the old, of 
High Germany, 103 ; the Swabian, 
107 ; the Catholic, 149. 

Learning, under the Ottos, 57; re- 
vival of, 126. 

Leibnitz, 220. 

Leipzig, battle of, 213. 

Leo, 269. 

Leo X., 129 ; his Bull burned, 131. 

Leoben, preliminaries of Peace signed 
at, 198. 

Leopold L, wars of, with Lewis XIV., 
164, 166, i68, 169; consents to re- 
cognise Frederick I. as King of 
Prussia, 167. 

Leopold II., 192, 194. 

Lessing, 221. 

Leszczynski, 171. 

Letter of Majesty, the, 149. 

Leuthen, battle of, 182. 

Lewis the German, 37, 38, 39, 40. 



Lewis the Pious, crowned during his 
father's lifetime, 37 ; afterwards 
crowned by Pope Stephen III., 37 ; 
rebellions of his sons, 37. 

Lewis the Child, 41 ; pays tribute to 
the Hungarians, 42. 

Lewis IV., war of, with Frederick 
the Fair, 99 ; quarrel with Pope 
John XXII., 100; becomes sole 
King, and is crowned Emperor, 
100 ; is supported by his subjects 
against the Popes, 100 ; offends the 
princes, loi ; his death, 102. 

Lewis I., of Bavaria, 226. 

Lewis II., of Bavaria, 265. 

Lewis XIV., of France, makes war on 
the United Provinces, 163 ; wars of, 
with Leopold I., 164, 166, 168, 169 
seizes Strassburg, 164 ; stirs up 
the Hungarians and Turks against 
Leopold I., 165. 

Liebig, 269. 

Liegnitz, battle of, 186. 

Liti, the, 5. 

Lodi, battle of, 197. 

Lomlaard cities, Frederick I. and the, 
75 ; Frederick II. and the, 80. 

Lombards, 4, 17 ; conquest of, by 
Charles the Great, 33 ; Charles the 
Great becomes King of the, 34 ; 
Otto I. becomes King of the, 50. 

Lorraine, district in, seized by Henry 
II. of France, 142 ; given up by 
Charles VI., 171. 

Lothar, the Emperor, 37, 38, 70. 

Lotharingia, 38 ; seized by Henry I., 
47 ; divided into two Duchies, 58. 

Loudon, Marshal, 183, 186, 187. 

Lowositz, battle of, 179. 

Luneville, peace of, 199. 

Luther, Martin, opposes Tetzel,i29 ; 
his thesis, 129 ; is excommimicated, 

131 ; burns the Pope's Bull, 131 ; 
appears before the Diet of Worms, 

132 ; his stay at the Wartburg, 133, 
his marriage, 134 ; his controversy 
with Zwingli, 137 ; his death, 141. 

Liitzen, the battle of, 156. 
Luxemburg, Emperors of the house 

of, 98, 104-in; France desires to 

purchase, 25G. 



M. 

Mack, surrender, of, 201. 
Magdeburg, archbishoprick of, 49 
the sack of, 155. 



278 



INDEX, 



Mainz, the see of, 30, 43, 56, 200 ; 
given to Lewis the German, 38 ; 
the French in, 195. 

Malplaquet, battle of, 170. 

Mannus, 5. 

Mansfeld, Count, 151, 153, 154. 

Marcomanni, the, 4, 12, 15, 18. 

Marcomannic War, the, 15. 

Marchfield, the, 24. 

Margaret Maultasch, loi, io6. 

Margraves, 35. 

Margraves' War, the, 115. 

Marengo, battle of, 199 

Maria Theresa, pragmatic sanction 
in favour of, 171 ; claims of, to the 
Austrian inheritance, disputed, 173; 
appeals to Hungary, 176 ; concludes 
peace with Frederick IL, 176, 177 ; 
her regret for the loss of Silesia, 
178 ; conduct of her troops during 
the Seven Years' War, 179-188 ; 
her death, 190. 

Marlborough, the Duke of, 169, 170. 

Maroboduus, 14. 

Marsi, the, 3 ; defeated by Germani- 
cus, 13. 

Martel, Charles, 29. 

Martin, cousin of Pippm of Herstall, 
28. 

Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, 
117. 

Matricula, the, 133. 

Matthias, acknowledged as head of 
the house of Austria, 148 ; crowned 
Emperor, 150 ; his feeble govern- 
ment, 150. 

Maurice, Duke of Saxony, 140, 142, 

143- 

Maximilian I., marriage of, with 
Mary, 117 ; power of, 118 ; obtains 
Joanna as a wife for his son Philip, 
119 ; holds a Diet at Worms, 1495, 
119 ; sets up the Imperial Chamber, 
119 ; joins the League of Cambray, 
120; helps the Holy League, 120; 
serves under Henry VI 11. at I'er- 
Guenne, 120 ; makes war on the 
Swiss League, 121 : carries on the 
war of the Bavarian succession, 121 ; 
takes the titles of " Emperor Elect " 
and "King of Germany," 122; 
divides Germany into Circles, 122 ; 
sets up the Aulic Council, 122 ; his 
death, 123. 

Maximilian II., 147. 

Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, 149, 153. 

Maximilian, Emmanuel, Elector of 
Bavaiia, 169. 



Mayer, 269. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, 270. 
Me anchthon, 134, 138. 
Merowig, King, 20. 
Merowingians, character of the, 24 ; 
household of the, 25 ; dethroned, 

Metternich, Prince, 212, 224. 

Metz, seized by Henry II. of France, 

142 ; surrender of, 263. 
Meyerbeer, 270. 
Middle Ages, end of the, 123, 
Minden, battles of, 14, 183. 
Minnesanger, the, 92. 
Missi Dominici, 35. 
Moguls, the, 81. 
Moltke, Von, 252, 260, 262. 
Moiwitz, battle of, 175. 
Mommsen, 269. 
Montecuculi, General, 164. 
Morat, the battle of, 116. 
Moreau, 197. 

Morgarten Pass, battle of, 103. 
Mozart, 222. 

Muhlberg, battle of, 141. 
Muller, 269. 
Miiller, K. O., 269. 
Munich, founded by Henry the Lion, 

76 ; Gustavus Adolphus at, 156. 
Murat, Joachim, 202. 
Music, in Germany, 222, 270. 



N. 



Nafels, battle of, 107. 

Napoleon Buonaparte, first victories 
of, 197 ; forces Austria to accept 
the peace of Campo Formio, 198 ; 
his campaign in Italy, 1800, 199 ; 
his contemptuous treatment of Ger- 
many, 200; defeats the allies, 1805, 
201 ; forms the confederation of the 
Rhme, 202 ; his war with Prussia, 
204-207 ; his war with Austria, 
1809, 208 ; his war with Prussia, 
Russia, Austria, and Sweden, 211- 
216 ; his escape from Elba, 217 ; 
his final defeat, 218. 

Napoleon III., declares war with 
Prussia, 25S ; surrenders to the 
King of Prussia, 262. 

National Union, the, 244. 

National Liberal party, the, 257. 

Neander, 268. 

Neerwinden, battle of, 195. 

Nero, 14. 

Netherlands, the house of Austria 



INDEX, 



279 



receives the, 117; Charles V. resigns 
the, to Philp, 144 ; Austria receives 
the Spanish, 170; revolt of the, 
against Joseph IL, 192 ; Austria 
cedes the, to France, 198, 199. 

Neustria, 24. 

Nibelungenlied, the, 93, 

Nicholas V., 100. 

Niebuhr, 220. 

Nobles, in ancient Germany, 5 ; 
feudal, 42 ; the lower class of, 70 ; 
increase of immediae, 85. 

Noble houses, leading, £6. 

Northmen, depredations by the, 38 ; 
burn Hamburg, 40 ; defeated by 
Amulf, 4r. 

North German Confederation, the, 
256, 257. 

Novalis, 269. 

Niirnberg, the Religious peace of, 
139- 



Olcen, 269. 

Opitz, Martin, 160. 

Otto I., civil wars under, 48, 50 ; in- 
creases his power, 49 ; his wars, 49 ; 
first visit to Italy, 50 ; marries 
Queen Adelheid, 50 ; becomes King 
of the Lombards, 50 ; second visit 
to Italy, 51 ; is crowned Emperor, 
51 ; his death, 52. 

Otto 1 1., crowned Emperor, 52 ; 
marries TheophanS, 52 ; marches 
to Paris, 53; goes to Italy, 53; his 
death, 53. 

Otto III., 54. 

Otto IV., 79. 

Otto of Nordheim, 64, 65. 

Ottocar, King of Bohemia, 83, 87, 95, 

Oudenarde, battle of, 170. 

Overbeck, 270. 



Palace, Mayors of the, 26, 28, 

Palatinate, overrun by French troops, 
r66. 

Palsgraves, 26, 35 ; provincial, 52. 

Papacy, Henry III. and the, 62; 
Henry IV. and the, 65, 66, 67, 68 ; 
Henry V. and the, 69 ; Loihar and 
the, 70; Frederick I. and the, 75, 
76 ; Kings Philip and Otto and the, 
79 ; Frederick If. and the, 80, 81 ; 
LewLs IV. ajid the, 100, loi- 



Paris, attacked by the Northmen, 39; 



Peace 



first Peace of, 216 



second Peace of, 218 ; besieged, 53, 

263.^ 
Partition of Poland, the first, 189 ; 

the second, 196 ; the third, 196. 
Paschal 1 1., 6q. 
Passarovvitz, Peace of, 171. 
Passau, Treaty of, 143. 
Patricians, the, 56, 125. 
Pavia, battle of, 133. 
Peace, General, proclaimed by Henry 

III., 61 ; proclaimed by the Diet. 

118, 119. 
Peasantry, the, 43, 125 ; war of the, 

135- 

People, Literature of the, 126. 

Peter III., of Russia, 187. 

Pfahlburger, 90- 

Philip, King, 79. 

Philip, son of Maximilian I., 119. 

Piiiiip, Charles V.'s son, 142, 144- 

Philip, Landgrave of Hessen, 134, 
135, 141. 

Pichegru, General, 195. 

Pippin, of Landen, 28 ; of Herstall, 
28. 

Pippin the Short, 29 ; becomes King 
of the Franks, 30; defeats the 
Lombards, 32; is made Patrician, 
32. 

Pisa, the Council of, 108. 

Pius VI., 191. 

Plague, the, 105, 

Platen, 269. 

Podiebrad, George, 115, 116. 

Poland, submission of, to German 
Kings, 49, 55, 60, 75 ; throws off 
allegiance to the German Kings, 
84: the Teutonic Order and, 118: 
Prussia independent of, 163 : parti- 
tions of, 189, 196. 

Pope, the German Kings and the, 85. 

" Potato War," the, 190. 

Pott, 269. 

Pragmatic Sanction, in favour of 
Maria Theresa, 171. 

Prague, the University of, 106, 109 : 
Peace of, 255. 

Pressburg, Peace of, 201. 

Princes, secular, 55 : spiritual, 56 ; 
independence of the, 55, 70, 83, 114 
124, 144, 159, 163. 

Private War, 43, 56. 

Protestants, the Lutherans are called, 

1 3 7-. 
Prussia, conquest of, 83 : western 
pari of, ceded to Casimir IV., 118: 



28o 



INDEX. 



Albert of Brandenburg becomes 
Duke of, 136 ; Duchy of, joined to 
Electorate of Brandenburg, 149 ; 
the Elector of Brandenburg be- 
comes King of, 167 ; effect of Seven 
Years' War on the position of, 188, 
189; gain of, by first partition of 
Poland, 190; gain of, by second 
and third partitions of Poland, 196 ; 
joins Austria against France, 194 ; 
humiliated by Erance, 205-207 ; 
war with France, 210-218 ; religious 
movements in, 228 ; the Revolution 
in, 1848-9, 229, 230, 233, 238 ; the 
National Assembly of, 233 ; consti- 
tutional government in, 238 ; re- 
lations of, to Austria and the 
German Confederation, 245 ; dis- 
putes between Austria and, 248 ; 
prepares for war with Austria, 249 ; 
war with Austria, 251; annexations 
to, 1866, 255 ; France declares war 
against, 258. 



Quadi, the, 4. 

Quatre Bras, battle of, 217. 



R. 



Ranke, 269. 

Rastatt, Peace of, 170; congress 

opened at, 198. 
Ranch, 270. 
Reformation, beginnings of the, 129 ; 

causes of the, 130 ; Charles V. and 

the, 131 ; progress of the, 133 ; in 

Switzerland, 137 ; political effects 

of the, 144. 
Renaissance Architecture, 145. 
Restitution, the Edict of, 154. 
Revolution, in 1830, 226 ; in 1848-9, 

228-241. 
Rhenish Bavaria, insurrection in, 237. 
Richard, Earl of Cornwall, elected 

King of the Romans, 94. 
Richard I. of England, and Henry 

VI., 78. 
Richelieu, Cardinal, 157. 
Richter, 221. 
Rietschel, 270. 
Ripuarians, the, 18. 
Ritter, 269. 

Roman law, in Germany, 125. 
Romantic School, the, 269. 



Romanesque, architecture, 57, 

Rossbach, battle of, 18 1. 

Riickert, 269. 

Riidiger, Count, 165. 

Rudolf, of Swabia, 67. 

Rudolf, of Habsburg, elected King, 

95 ; his war with Ottocar, King of 
Bohemia, 95 ; secures Austria and 
the sister Duchies for his family, 

96 ; his government, 96 ; his death, 

97- 
Rudolf IT., 148, 149, 150. 
Rudolf III., of Burgundy, 59. 
Rugii, the, 4. 
Rupert, King, 107. 
Ryswick, peace of, 166. 



Sachsen - Wittemberg, given to the 

Margrave of Meissen, m. 
Sachsenspiegel, the, 90. 
Sackville, Lord George, 183. 
Salians, the, 17. 
Salic Code, the, 19. 
Salzburg, the bishoprick of, made an 

archbishoprick, 34. 
Sans Souci, 177. 
Saxons, the, 17 ; conquered by 

Charles the Great, 33 ; Henry IV. 

offends the, 63 ; wars of, with 

Henry IV., 64, 67 ; submission of 

the, to Henry IV., 68. 
Saxony, 41 ; taken from Henry the 

Lion, 77 ; made a kingdom, 201 ; 

disturbances in, 236; overrun by 

the Prussians, 252. 
Saxe, Marshal, 177. 
Scharnhorst, 210. 
Schelling, 220. 
Schiller, 221. 
Schinkel, 270. 
Schlegel, 269. 
Schleiermacher, 268. 
Schleswig-Holstein, 231, 241, 242, 246, 

248. 
Schlosser, 269. 
Schmalkaldic League, formed, 138; 

defeated, 141. 
Schonbrunn, battle of, 208. 
Schubert, 270. 
Schumann, 270. 
Schwabenspiegel, the, 90. 
Schwartzenberg, Prince, 212. 
Schwerin, Marshal, 176, 180. 
Schwyz, 102. 
Sedan, battle of, 262. 



INDEX. 



281 



Seidlitz, General, 181. 

Semnones, the, 4. 

Sempach, battle of, 107. 

Sequani, the, 11. 

Serfs, 43 ; the free-ing of, 90. 

Seven Years' War, the, 179-188. 

Sicambri, the, 3. 

Sicily, Henry VI. and the kingdom 

of, 78. 
Sigmund, elected King, 108 ; at the 

Council of Constanz, 108 ; war 

with Bohemia, 110 ; receives the 

crown of Bohemia, iii ; his death, 

111. 
Silesian School, the first, 161 ; the 

second, 220. 
Silesian War, the first, 175 ; the 

second, 177. 
Slaves, in ancient Germany, 5. 
Slavonic lands, conquest of, 83. 
Sobieski, John, 165. 
Spanish Succession, war of the, 168. 
Spielhagen, 270. 
Stein, 210. 

Strassburg, seized by Lewis XIV. ,264. 
Strauss, 268. 
Suevi, the, 4. 

Suleyman, the Sultan, 136, 139. 
Swabia, 41, 48. 
Sweden, concessions to, by Peace of 

Westphalia, 159. 
Swiss League, the, and Maximilian I., 

121. 
Switzerland, the Reformation in, 137 ; 

independence of, acknowledged, 

159. 
Sword, the Knights of the, 83* 



T. 



Taborites, the, iii. 

Tencteri, the, 3. 

Testri, battle of, 28. 

Tetzel, John, 129. 

Teutonic Kingdom, the, 38. 

Teutonic Order, the, conquers Prussia 
83 ; defeated by Jagellon, 118 ; 
cedes to Casimir IV. the western 
part of Prussia, and does homage 
for the rest, 118 ; comes to an end 
a5 a sovereign power, 136. 

Thassllo, 34. 

Theudebert, 23. 

Theodoric, the Great, 17, 18. 

Theodoric, son of Chlodwig, 23. 

TheophanC, 52, 53, 57. 

Thiers, M., 266. 



Thorn, Peace of, 118. 

Thuisto, 5. 

Thuringia, 18, 41, 64, 86. 

Thurn, Count, 151. 

Thusnelda, 13. 

Tiberius, 12. 

Tieck, 269. 

Tilly, Count, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156. 

Tilsit, peace of, 207. 

Torgau, battle of, 186. 

Torstenson, General, 157. 

Towns, the building of, in time of 
Henry I., 47 ; growth of, 56 ; Free 
Imperial, 89, 125 ; Leagues of, 89. 

Trent, Council of, 147. 

Tribes, ancient, 3 ; groups of, 4, 17 ; 
wanderings of, 16. 

Tribur, Assembly held at, 40. 

Truce of God, the, 71. 

Tyrol, falls to the house of Austria, 
106. 

Tyrolese, loyalty of the, 209. 

Turenne, 157, 164. 

Turks, threaten Germany, 114; driven 
back by the Hungarians, 115 ; the, 
in Maximilian I.'s time, 121 ; in- 
vasion of Austria by the, 165. 



U. 



Ubii, the, 4. 

Uhland, 269. 

Ulrich, Duke of Wurtemberg, 140. 

Ulrich von Hutten, 126, 130, 135. 

Universities of Germany, 126. 

United Diet, at Berlin, 228. 

Union, the Protestant, 149 ; the Ger- 
man, 238. 

United Provinces, independence of 
the, acknowledged, 159 ; war of the, 
with Lewis XIV., 163. 

Usipetes, the, 3. 

Utraquists, the, m. 



Vandals, the, 4, 16. 
Varus, Quinctilius, 12, 13. 
Velleda, 14. 

Verdun, the treaty of, 38. 
Vienna, declared the capital, 98 ; ih« 
Concordat of, 114 ; Congressof. 216^ 
Villages, in ancient Germany, 7. 
Voltaire, 178. 
Von Arnim, 269. 
Von Sybel, 26^ 



ij82 



INDEX, 



W. 



Wagram, battle of, ao8. 

Waiblings, 74. 

Waitz, 269. 

Wallenstein, Albert von, raises an 
army, 154 ; defeats the Protestant 
armies, 154 ; receives a check at 
Stralsund, 154 ; is dismissed, 155 ; 
is again summoned to the Emperor's 
aid, and raises a second army, 156 ; 
is defeated at Liitzen, 156 ; is 
murdered, 157. 

Wartburg, Luther at the, 133. 

Wattignies, battle of, 195. 

Waterloo, battle of, 217, 

Weber, 270. 

Wedel, General, 184. 

Weinsberg, the women of, 73. • 

Weissenburg, battle of, 260. 

Welau, treaty of, 163- 

Welf, made Duke of Bavaria, 64. 

Welfs, the, 74. 

Wenceslaus, 106, 107. 

Wergeld, the, 6, 20. 

Westphalia, the Peace of, 158. 

Widukind, resistance of, to Charles 
the Great, 33. 

Wieland, 221. 

William of Holland, 82, 94. 

William I., of Prussia, mounts the 
throne, 245 ; his quarrel with 
Parliament, 245 ; signs the Gastein 
Convention, 248 ; assumes supreme 
command in the war with Austria, 
253 ; is reconciled to Parliament, 
2s6 ; his action with respect to 
French demands, 258 ; assumes 



supreme command in the war with 
France, 259 ; Napoleon surrenders 
to, 262 ; is declared Emperor, 265. 

William III., of England, 166. 

William IV., of England, 227. 

Willibrord, 30. 

Wilhgis, 53. 

Wilfnth, 30. 

Winfrith, 30. 

Witchcraft, believed in, 161. 

Wittelsbach, Otto of, 77. 

Wladislaus, King of Bohemia and 
Hungary, 117. 

Wodan, 9. 

Wolf, Christian Freiherr von, 220. 

Wolf, 269. 

Worms, the Concordat of, 69 ; the 
Diet of, 1495, 119; the Diet of, 
1521, 132. 

Worth, battle of, 260. 

Wrangel, General, 157, 232. 

Wurmser, Marshal, 195, 197. 

Wurtemberg, the Duke of, made an 
Elector, 200. 

Wycliffe, the doctrines of, in Bo- 
hemia, 109. 



Zach, 269. 

Zacharias, Pope, 30. 
Zahringen, the house of, 87* 
Zeller, 268. . 
Ziethen, General, 186. 
Zisca, John, iic. 
Zorndorf, battle of, 182. 
Zwmgli, Ulrich, 137. 



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